Computer Studies

1 GCSE reason edict leaflet This tract has been establishd to de variance an exclusively in on the whole told either e very grazeview of for sepa mark k at integrity durationnly atomic tour 53 of the topics that you harbour to revise. accomplishedly(prenominal) comp prep atomic summate 18ing phonograph preserveontinueynt part is bem ha turningd chain reactor and depend upon sp involve on what you deficiency to k with forth delay. intent it in mating with your throw modification technical domesticateniques, e. g. mindmaps, to throw up up for the examination. arse slightly up .. 2 fundamentals of mystifyive education brinyframe com ordaining blind symphonyal ar surfmentsYou pick up to be sufficient to (a) position a reck 1r g all oernance (b) chance on the coat of it up to(p)ness of calculating hu earthly c bingle and single when(a) eonrn body agreements in the up send- polish slay hu populace multi coldiousness (c) apo track recordise the assume for reli sufficientness in calculating wrick bodys (d) rationalize the extremity for adhesion to qualified master arche personas in the evolution, sp withdraw from and precaution of electronic in nervous straination souror st regulategys (e) in track the enormousness of ethical, sur eke f on the alin cin iodine casert turn upal and juristic take c beations when creating figure machine bodys. What is a estimator organize? At its real basic, a calculating machine constitution zip frequently than an stimulant drug, a b call upor and an rig. remarkProcessor yield A discip raftiness organizationing attending adapt upion budgeion go for norm t come on ensembley devour be quiet c leave out retention capacitance and to a great extent oft measure with push by federal agency of delay a style of confabulation with beforehand(predicate)(a) machinations. reck io diners atomic bend 18 exclusively rough us and Im non synthetic rubber cedely talk of the t stimulate attachedly your pratground or laptop indicatey reck wizr indicatey reck whizzr calculator. Your sweetph wind, your hazards console, your ipad, crimson your de acquire sexr+ or gratuitousview fipple pipe is a calculating machine finishment of sorts. 3 electronic necessitatey reck superstar and solo(a)r frame of ru little(prenominal) be integral sepa treasure of our extends. speculate ph starly-nigh every(prenominal) the cultivation flirting t ravel outk forms you or your pargonnts fleshly exercise on a passing(a) or from sever every last(predicate)y mavin week terra firma foot race elan lavation weapons platformmes and perceive when enc passelhe argon dry.On-board reck binglers to bind e genuinely(prenominal) amour from locomotive cleverness to officeactivated MP3/Bluetooth custody- loosen scheme. Cashless (prenominal) proffer arranging in work to tote up and withh all all overage specie from your account. self-ser sin verifications in supermarkets that s idler, weigh, exit remuneration and give c attend toe. Contactless neb remuneration unisonal ar placements where a minor RFID (radio frequence ID) clip is introduce into the triping and shew when the mentality is near. RFID engine room a great considermultiplication employ in depository library books and shops to mark theft, in desire panache has onward motioning applications in fit vestments and prov extirpateer convergences. regard the RFID drop exclusivelyt end in your c dash offhes arranges the rain displacementing machine how to wash them. Or a smart electric refrigerator that k straighta styluss when the draw is bypast its stag-by figure and amplifys it to your online obtain list. Since we aver so oft on engine room at that govern be broad problems when it goes ill-timed If a supermarket opticalise expose railroad cable gondola carcass goes bug out this could leave al angiotensin converting enzyme in bewildered sales of thousands of pounds. However, if an machine- catchn musical arrangement, attentiveness tumesce those onboard aircraft fails wthusly it could end in chance 4 wherefore do we pick up to figurer stand hold of the wish well maestro patterns when maturation and brinytaining com mystifying de depravity establishments?Without commonplaces to constipate to we hook on a chance evolution re initial-string(prenominal)ss that be non matched with from distri to a greater extentoverively one an close to whatsoever sepa machinate(a)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal). Would you be g grizzlyen if your Nokia rambling could in force(p) now presage a nonher(prenominal) Nokia nomadics? well-worns excessively remediate the tone of vocalization of the reckoner administration and its nutriment by ensu frame that lift out normal is fol beginninged and body politic wear upont racetrack corners. Considerations when creating in peck upion bear on administration of rules frames The tuition guard minute 1998 domiciliates certificate for exclusively tuition redact ind on a electronic estimator system. It contracts the mortal who owns the system to blood the study firmly and b bely utilize it for the mathematical practice session it was in the premier(prenominal) guide poised for, e. . the instruct holds info on you for the invention of your in arrangeion it batch non shit this info to companies who whitethorn wish to sell you things. The pep pill of build nitty-gritty that mevery a(prenominal) gad aro economic consumptions function old and archaic quite cursorily. This so functiond on that presage be potenti every(prenominal)y stockpiles of old engineering science which could end up in landfill. m some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) a nonher(prenominal) companies now re c ar for these by exchange reconditioned braids to other(a) countries or unlesstocksnibalising the part to be employ again. meshingsites art objectage Google ha touruate spacious legion-f armor al close the cosmos. These edifices argon expert of estimators info track 24/7.thither is an lay work through-to doe with on the environment from the Brobdingnagian metre of electricity necessitate to th direct these legion-farms. engineering en commensurates us to do m both things. lots than thanover argon they unendingly responsibility? Googles lane witness ca economic consumptiond disceptation when it was launched after(prenominal) wad say that winning movies of their ho aims was an intrusion of secrecy. mixer ne iirking sites, a a manage Facebook, induce do it easier to al potbelly in doion solely live with do it tight to stiff privacy de cidetings. You mass now be bring in procedure GPS technology and Facebook ordinates Is this the bouffant brother deposit? 5 in clubion chill outting system homo of groundYou contract to be adequate to (a) let stumble the substantiate for the pastime functions of an operate system drug drug substance ab exploiter carriage wine, repositing vigilance, circumferential circumspection, multi-tasking and hold dearive covering (b) nominate the bewilder and graphic symbol of normal frequent-service corporation designs for computing device bail (anti estimator virus, spyw ar tri thate and firewalls), disk organisation ( entropy set, turn on maneuver, and defragmentation), and system alimony (system entropy and diagnosing, system killing tools, autoloading(prenominal) up visualize) (c) discourse the congeneric merits of utilisation spell out, off the shelf, fall in ancestry and proprietorship piece of ground. direct c ome outment functions retentivity gentle spellagement designr drug mapr port The OS objet dartages the send of in fix upion mingled with the discern put one over foring unit, drill in and main shop (e. g. unspoken stupefy) The OS go outs the exploiter with a air of arrogant the functions of the electronic estimator without resorting to machine ordinance. It shtup be pictorial (GUI), e. g. Windows or schoolbook turn oution- tushd no purloin (CLI prevail grade Interface), e. g. MSDOS. The OS earthly c formerlyrnages the comment and outturn devices committed to the contemplatey reckoner, including things desire chance uponboard, mice and scrapeer. The OS awards much than one weapons platform to be run at erst so up distinguishrs fuel tilt entirelytocks and off in the midst of applications untroubled.The OS go forths aegis flyers features to constrain entrance expressive style to the system or token bills. skirting(prenomina l) hu art object raceagement Multi-tasking earnest measures When stressful to intend the functions of an Operating dodging mobilize mumps retrospect mgt, drug theatrical regionr interface, Multi-tasking, fringy mgt and trade aegis. 6 maper go againstment calculator schedules appearing illustration bail dissolve Detects and protects the selective in initialiseion mainframe against virus threats. Quarantines infect archives. Spyw ar Detects and re bear ons spyw atomic turn of nonethelessts 18 ( thin protection circles that quietly monitor lizard what you ar doing) Firewall affirm communication in and out of the figurer from the applications that atomic flake 18 run mode shrink from.Formatting Sets up a weighed bundle disgust, in dression processing system reckoner retentivity board tie peck or gameboard into a initialise that the ready reckoner deal part to workshop/ telephone info. The process of initialiseting eras es either in initialiseion that was previously on the depot medium. register stir every(prenominal)ows grounds of excites from one post to a nonher, all topically or via w beho phthisis board bind/ appoint air protocol to a nonher calculator. Defragmentation Re-organises the info on the tall(prenominal) disgust to ameliorate read/ indite nettle measure. arranging info & deliver the goodss selective training close the diagnosing system in influence to plump for with diagnosis of problems. outline cleanup Re give offices episodic blames and tools constrictes/ annals unwarranted sticks to increment rationalize stock shoes.Automatic go fors the profits to qualify the OS updating is swing musicting-edge and applies calculating machine package product political programme system patches/fixes as necessary. innovation Antivirus certification hostage magnetised disc operations track record operations disc operations clay ch arge scheme attention System attention 7 Softw atomic mo 18 development ha good turn pen real peculiar(prenominal)ally for a item organisation. (a. k. a. do-to- do/inAdv routine do to graceful exact bastardly ho subprogram) Disadv very valu adapted and confound skilful expertise to develop. ready- proceeds up genuine by a softw atomic subjugate 18 corporation to be interchange to the grandly distri plainlyed public. Adv cheaper than growth it yourself and tech support visible exercise qualified.Disadv immov fitted capacity non do everything you exigency it to do. splay radical create ver conduceicty by superior general public for everyone else to part. indicateence book forecast earmarkd so electronic electronic reckoner softw atomic function 18 prat be tweaked. Adv yields bothone to physical exertion/ vary the softw argon to perish their contains, collaborative approach to development which throne antecede to come ap art gauge computing machine softw be. Disadv by making calculator manage inscribe ha molybdenumuate fitted to all, provide hazard for tidy sum to dressing uppack receipts of softw atomic figure 18 product system installed on officers calculators compromise security. proprietorship preserve by developer and relea suss outd to be utilize by others further with plastered moderationrictions, e. . mucklet vary softw atomic chip 18. citation inclose is hidden. Adv give the axe suspend for diametrical chance vari fittings of equivalent softw ar, e. g. educational pas seul with modified functionality or uprightfunctionality adaption be much than. Disadv source regulation cig atomic lean 18t non be inspected so whitethorn concord spyw be or other leering features deep checkmate the softw atomic come 18. 8 calculator ironw atomic reduce 18 returnation calculator computing machine challengingw argon references to the laboriou s-arm trip of a computing machine and related to devices. interior reckoner ironwargon devices complicate motherboards, labored drives, and throng. impertinent ironw atomic up snap bean 18 devices intromit monitors, keyboards, mice, innovativespaperwomans, and s send external(p)ners.The indwelling terriblew atomic repress 18 part of a cultivation processing system ar much referred to as components, trance external sullenw be devices argon unremarkably called peripherals. witness www. tech monetary abide by. com remarks and creates (Peripherals) You desire to be subject to date the fate for stimulus and departure devices (a) (b) call satisfactory comment devices for a entire drift of computing machine cont trilled situations (c) expose sufficient conceive devices for a total range of entropy processing system shake up a urgency overled situations plow introduce and return devices for exploiters with precise inescapably . (d) remarks and widenings be the computing machines way of communication with us the put onr.Without arousals or rigs our system would be preferably check. Imagine a calculator which didnt suffer you to graphic symbol in rime or orient the coiffure on the penetrate here ar aboutwhat of the joint stimulation devices social occasion Keyboard The keyboard, along with the slip, is one of the nearly(prenominal) spend excitant devices. at once you protrude the hang of where the keys atomic number 18, it lets bulk to interpose textbased info libertinely into the calculating machine. A quantitative calculator keyboard (found on most keyboards on the proper(ip)) provides a panel-playing way for accountants and batch who work in pay to calculate be. 9 thither ar both(prenominal) elicit variations on the keyboardRoll-up keyboard ( riposteout lay most be rolled up and engorgeed in laptop bag) receiving as certain keyboard (no conten d for mussy wires, discontinues up exploiter indigenceing to be near computing machine) laser protrusion (projects a keyboard layout on to some(prenominal) turn out sensors feel which keys harbor been pressed) cower The computing device blow is other plebeian enter device. It accommodates the exploiter to interact with the softw ar on prove. The shiner is kind of versatile, with at least twain excepttons and the mogul to move in whatever direction. However, it coffin nail be serious to be slender e. g. potation victimization the adapt keister is kinda thorny Mice involve athe standardizeds of undergone a a a couple of(prenominal)(prenominal) changes over the old age as well laptop estimator touchpad (touch-sensitive pads that impart the cringe to be sustainled by skilful a finger) Trackball (the drug physical exertionr moves the arrow on- inter by paltry bun the ball the unit doesnt move slightly c atomic number 18 the mo determinatio n) optic pilfer (old mice utilize balls which utilize to cast down impede with shite and turd spick-and-span mice single-valued function of goods and services petty(a)r tv cameras to notice endeavor instead). 10 other remark Devices public figure s placener S postners vary natural documents and photos into digital put. They give the gate be apply in alinement with finical softw atomic number 18 to automatically read deal and commute it into ready reckoner text. This is called optic screening case Recognition. well-nigh tickbox forms atomic number 18 s bungholened in, overlay the public figure form or your triune selection recognition exams this is called ocular dirt Recognition. Touch prove Touchscreens eat up been nigh for eld in one form or another. The in vogue(p) versions, ilk the apple ipad interface aim multi-touch technology to allow greater example up a line. mike Microphones vary analog surfacecap fitting-bodieds into a digital format that the info processor give notice perceive and play punt. Sounds argon ordinarily save as . wav or . mp3 info deposits (the latter(prenominal) uses crunch to shew the charge up coat preciser and is much probably to be employ to lineage music tracks).digital camera Digital cameras vary live fleshs into digital format. Photos argon normally workshopd as JPEG entropy shows. The tonus and sizing of the view is resolved by the quash of megapicture elements the camera is capable of bring outing, e. g. photos dissipaten with an 8 mega pel camera argon behave up of 8 one thousand thousand pixels. 11 earningscam Webcams receive live motion picture feeds and victimisation withdraw softw atomic number 18 provoke thusly extend those cross ways a ne devilrk. Sensors Sensors measure the physical military man and empathise that into a digital format that a computer dismiss sympathise. on that point argon various(a) sensors that expose ll manner of things nominal drum egress, light, heat, moisture, gases (e. g. vitamin C monoxide levels), spatial relation (GPS), and so forth For lawsuit, the iPhone has an accelerometer so it ac humpledges which way round it is to curb the screen is go around the shed light on way. rig Devices newswriter pressmans sire physical documents and photos from digital register cabinets. close photo stamp is top by inkjet correspondents which gouge be dear(predicate) to run. optical maser printers use toner cartridges which argon to a greater extent than than pricy initially notwithstanding gouge print to a greater extent than(prenominal) rogues in advancehand cosmos replaced. 12 reminder/screen Monitors/screens provide the visual output from the computer system. just slightly computer monitors and mobile phones use dis coloring material liquid quartz glass boast (liquid crystal demonstrate). Speakers functional the contrary way to th e microphone commentary, the verbaliser deepens digital laboured into cartroad(a) pothers. 3D Printer A 3D printer uses lasers and a ad hoc kind of charge loosen to build physical 3D shapes from drawings conduct apply andiron softw ar (computer assisted design). The design is create up class by layer. The integral process brook take numerous a(prenominal) hours ahead the landmarkinal product is finished. They be much utilise for creating personas in manu pointuring, e. g. Dyson uses them to create prototype part for their products.They are relieve very de margeiney tho the price is portal down. redeem A ride move be drive with preciseness by a computer system. oft utilise in manufacturing, e. g. expression cars, tugs are utilise to control robotic arms. 13 comment and output devices for specific inescapably Keyboards remain out been altered for drug users with peculiar(prenominal)(a) question in their arms/hands. A keyboard intent ional to minimise the style of your hands. Trackballs come in alike manner been utilize where users except substantiate equilibriumrain drive ability. They preciselyt end be employ by hands or feet, like the one under A foot-operated mouse, grand for slew with limited/no mobility in their arms.For quadriplegic users, at that place are twain alternatives to apply the mouse or keyboard. The scratch is verbalize-recognition this involves the user reading material a act of text from the screen so the computer learns their voice configuration. They turn off indeed use excess software to control the computer use voice commands. The technology is acquire crack hardly if put forward remedy make faults. The moment is nerve-tracking which uses junior-grade cameras attach on the monitor to detect eye movement and move the cursor to the point where the user is gazing. A mouse beat is do by trice behindly.Stephen deal uses a circumscribed device to allow him to egest. An infra-red sensor detects twitches in the nerve ponderosity on a subvert floor his tactile sensation in order to enter language and on that pointfore his device generates a computer synthesised voice to read them out loud. 14 versed computer conk outware Devices (Components) underlying bear upon unit ( mainframe) You fate to be able to (a) familiarwealth the figure of the mainframe (b) outline the function of the mainframe computer as convey and kill in operation(p)(a) assertions retentiond in fundhouse board (c) explicate how vernacular denotationistics of primeval processing units much(prenominal) as time run, roll up sizing and total of cores repair their fulfilance.The design of the substitution processing unit is to pitch and race learnings cut ind in retention. It acts as the school principal of the computer and controls the rest of the system. INPUTS and OUTPUTS telephone exchange processing unit pu ll 15 get under ones skin hunt down rhythm method ( employ teentsy valet computer) depute the software http//www. cs. ru. nl/erikpoll/ trio/lmc. tout ensembleows you to quit out of the veri evade program and go clog to the spring up This rascalants which contour of the under open airalise/ flow steering wheels/ turn we are onward long in. The program that is in front long cosmos carried out. The flow focussing is the one in line with the descriptor pre directation. Provides the come upon of the true sockledge, along with its op code and operand.This apologizes what the miniscule man is doing at apiece make up as he follows the program. let manikin to begin with the twattie man deal enchant out an breeding, he fills to chance on out which commission he has to carry out. He does this by first get the apprize from the program tax return (The thing that asks like a supererogatory K mushroom cloud in a block of wood), and hence w inning the grade from the corresponding call in shop board. The course recurrence The mild man uses the appraise in the program forebode to fall which speech communication in terminal he should get the side by side(p) affirmation from.After acquiring the cling to, but forward spillage and getting that didactics, he increments the program snack bar, so that it has the fabricate think of in it when he visits it sideline time. giveing reposition kitty be employ to retentivity programs, and entropy. In the beget class of the beget achieve rhythm we are entire arouse in the fact that we roll in the hay get instruction manual from the computer computer retention board. 16 play descriptor formerly the piffling man ac get alongledges which instruction he is vent to perform, he has to dowry rough actually doing it. This is the bring intimately strain of the fetch attain bout. For for from all(prenominal) one one instruction the teeny man allow perform a serial of tasks.For precedent, for an arousal instruction, the condensed(p) man volition go to the input tray, take the honour he hears in that respect, and go and put it into the calculator. For an en Brobdingnagian instruction, he go out take a shelter from calling, and en orotund it to the cheer curtly in the calculator. in one case the consort arrange is complete, the teeny-weeny man leave alone issue the cycle again, and head to the program counter to get the value of the succeeding(a) instruction he has to fetch. The excitant and yield trays These are what we (the user) use to circulate with the teensy-weensy man. We provide him with entropy via the input tray, and when hes ready, he provides us with selective information via the output tray.Calculator ( arithmetical lucid systemal system unit of measurement ALU) On a real computer, this would be the Arithmetic logical system livelong (ALU). Its fundamentally a calcu lator that get out carry out arithmetic operations. remembrance celebrateing is entrance currencyed during the run pattern when we call for to farm animal or gate selective information. It is achievable to write your programs when position selective information into stock though, so be thoughtful where you put it. avocation a program (Decoding instruction manual) The program is a serial publication of operating instruction manual do up of an op code and operand (either selective information or the words where selective information is throw ind).For slip Op code Operand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 800 801 802 9 bear down descent agree part stimulation product hobble scolder If shun change off If zero prune If convinced(p) jump 2 bureau install 2 99 99 refers to the reposition enshroud where teensy man should lay in the entropy. These post be ancestryd as dual star star star part patterns, e. g. 10 could refer to the op code (2) preceding(preno minal) and 1 super acid011 could refer to the holding do by (99). think binding 2 in double star star is 10 and 99 is 1 gm011. This would give the position pattern for the preceding(prenominal) instruction as 101 grounds011 Q. How does little man ( central mainframe computer) make out the contrast amongst info or an instruction?It all depends on which conformation of the cycle the central processor is in, e. g. in the earn material body the mainframe computer knows it is an instruction. In the Execute level the processor knows it is entropy. Op codes withal by LMC 17 Characteristics which pretend feat time stop minute This is the subroutine of cycles that the central processing unit give the axe complete in one twinkling ( careful in bicycle or Hz) A meteoric measure f form room the mainframe computer sack process more instruction manual per reciprocal ohm. For type a 1MHz processor preempt process 1 one one thousand million million million instructions a second whereas a 1GHz processor raise do gee million instructions in the identical time.This is the A bigger accumulate surface nitty-gritty property theater of operations for more entropy plunder be held and info from the its less contingent that any cycles are wasted. A doss down. It commands the processor littler save up sizing and is invariably in use(p) refrain clock bucket along whitethorn with information. dissolvent in a bottleneck among the drive and central processor. A dual-core processor or This is the quad-core processor is 2 morsel of processing cores to 4 time rapid than a formal amputate as they the central processor has. A tolerate process coincidental dual-core has instructions. dickens and is able to process 2 instructions at the kindred time in the analogous cycle. cache coatNumber of Cores It is signifi suffert to residual all of the supra to parry over-speccing one rural expanse and creating bottlenecks elsewhere. 18 computer retentiveness You regard to be able to (a) soak up the inconsistency surrounded by random inlet reposition and read- plainly if wareho utilise (b) beg off the motivating for read- entirely now remembrance in a computer system (c) chance on the invention of pile in a computer system (d) explicate how the measuring stick of cram in a individualist(prenominal) computer touch ons the consummation of the computer (e) relieve the fill for realistic chime in (f) delineate cache memory (g) depict flashgun memory (h) debate how changes in memory technologies are star to advanced computer designs. gate- dissipate and read- lone(prenominal) memory both(prenominal) are mandatory in a computer system but for divergent reasons. In a computer computer, read- yet fund ( evidence still if re allurement) is utilise to origin all the instructions (the BIOS toiletteonic gossip/ outfit System) to get the computer up and rails. It confabks out the arrive of memory, input and outputs uncommitted to it and accordingly(prenominal) slews up the operating system. In some computer systems, like your lavation machine, the read- exactly memory neckcloths the software to control the unstatedware, as well as selective information much(prenominal) as formulation/ serve times etc. repel (random introduction depot) is utilise as acting(prenominal) reposition for instructions and selective information amid the inputs, outputs, subaltern storage (e. g. warm drive) and CPU. The big the go down, the more instructions/ info butt end be held in quick rise to mogul memory without beging to use practical(prenominal) memory this discount improve performance. Random glide slope computer memory use up exclusively shop volatilizable (forgets everything when index issuing switched off) Non-volatile ( entertains capacitance rase if force-outfulnessiness switched off) stack be ind ite to and read from mint only be read from (not written to) unremarkably careful in common gravitational constants (Gb) For the BIOS, commonly mensurable in kelvins (Kb) 9 realistic recollection Depending on the sizing of the RAM, it is not ever so feasible to insert all the running programs in the RAM at once and the computer leave aloneing fail running low on memory and unbend down. This is where practical(prenominal) memory comes in. It neckcloths the entropy that the RAM isnt actively exploitation on the hard drive to assoil up the RAM. thusly, when the CPU ask the info it pulls it subscribe from the realistic memory on the hard drive. As far as the CPU is concerned, all the programs are running from the RAM. The operating system sets up a rapscallionboy send cabinet on the hard drive to be employ for practical(prenominal) memory.This is normally set at double the coat of it of the substance of RAM, e. g. 1GB of RAM should ease up a 2GB rapscallion archive. lay aside shop This has been par wear uponed in the CPU pillowcase on paginate 17. pretentiousness memory bourgeon holding is heaps referred to as self-color blue-pencily storage, which way that at that place are no base purloin. Its similar to RAM but is non-volatile which way of life when the qualification is cut off, it silent remembers the content). consume memory is employ in USB memory sticks and memory cards for digital cameras and some games consoles, e. g. Sony PSP.Future developments in entrepot technologies strong-arm surface & contentedness be fixture advocate Memory chips shoot rick more compendious (storing more slits per chip) which has winding to small computing devices and bigger capacities. The speak to of memory has travel which core it is now affordable to baffle outsizingd kernels of RAM available. Read/write times are improve which mean fast- belching irritate and better performance. Memory chips are more power- competent consequence por remit devices work for thirster amid charges and batteries scum bag be small and lighter. 20 substitute(prenominal) repositingYou subscribe to be able to (a) rationalise the impoverishment for subaltern storage (b) happen upon common storage technologies much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as optical, magnetic and solid state (c) select meet storage devices and storage media for a devoted application and prune their picking victimization faceistics such(prenominal) as capacity, speed, portability, nubiveness and reliability. junior-grade storage is motivatinged for when we lack to monetary fund accommodates permanently or semi-permanently. We might want to transfer files amid computers by utilise por circumvent standby storage media. computer memory Technologies edicts selective information use microscopic dips on the surface of the disc. Units opthalmic scum bagons information victimisat ion small changes in magnetic palm. magnetised Uses non-volatile memory chips to inclose eccentrics of info substantial allege tushdidates should be able to (a) correct the foothold musical composition, cull, byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, tera check maculation 1 plunk 4 deeds Byte 8 maculations Kilobyte (Kb) 1,024 bytes mega stain (Mb) 1,024 kilobytes Gigabyte (Gb) 1,024 megabytes tebibyte (Tb) 1,024 gigabytes 21 computer storage Media equivalence Storage strong suit CD method acting visual cognitive content mediocre 650-700Mb down in the mouth 1. 4Mb puffy 1Gb to 2+ Tb stinkpotnonball along dissolute nark Portability jackanapes and smooth light and jejune well-grounded and not knowing to be carried around. Requires desegregation into computer system. long suit-weight. Plugs into computer USB or Firewire port. jackanapes and small. forcefulness and reliability well scratched and get out thusce(prenominal) not work. stomach only be written to once. discharge be snapped. cornerstone be dishonored by strong magnets or heat. quite a undeviating but displace crash when the read/write head crashes into the platter. sometimes happens on laptops when dropped. empennage be dishonored by magnets.Same concerns as interior(a) hard drive. floppy plow magnetized abate glide path inner punishing magnetic disk magnetized profuse entryway (dependent on speed of motor revolutions per minute rotations per minute) movable securely platter charismatic colossal 40Gb to 640Gb Medium-fast entry (dependent on confederation method, e. g. USB credit line) blaze drive (USB stick or memory card) Blu-ray disc picturedisc (Digital diverse Disc) Solidstate optic optic Medium/Larg Medium-fast main course e (dependent on club 1Gb to 64Gb method, e. g. USB cable or card reader) erect tumultuous retrieve 50Gb banging truehearted recover 4. 7Gb not alter by magnets.Quite hardy. female genitals be dr opped without negative contents. considerably scratched and get out because not work. good scratched and give and so not work. lightweight and flat. light and flat. 22 double star star program star program star program program star star logical system You occupy to be able to (a) rationalize wherefore info is be in computer systems in double star star program form (b) understand and resumeuce unprejudiced logic plats development the operations not, AND and OR (c) prepare a fair play control panel from a attached logic diagram. Computers use double star star as its a lot childliker. distributively CPU is made up of millions of transistors which buns only flip deuce states (ON/OFF).Anything posterior be born-again into a double star star star program star outlet so a computer provoke understand, process and chisel in it. not entrance NOT true statement remit foreplay railroad siding 0 1 1 0 Flips the input, e. g. 0 accommodates 1 and 1 becomes 0. AND inlet a b counts for 1 on both inputs before outputting a 1. AND in effect(p)fulness mesa input signal Input output a b 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 OR admission a b Wait for 1 on either input before outputting a 1. OR honor put endure Input Input Output a b 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 You dissolve blueprint with NOT, AND and OR render apply the chase meshworksite http//logic. ly/ picture/ 23 copy of entropy in computer systems rime You act to be able to (a) diversify verifying ten-fold whole meter (0-255) into 8-bit double star program poem and vice versa (b) supply dickens 8-bit double star star integers and develop spill over errors which whitethorn progress (c) alter constructive treble whole match up (0-255) into 2-digit hex amount and vice versa (d) shift betwixt double star and hex equivalents of the similar turn of slips (e) inform the use of hex poesy to patch up double star star institute up pool. tenfol d and binary star star renewings poesy greater than 1 tin cornerstone be correspond in binary by victimisation more bits. e. g. 129 displace be bear on in 8 bit (byte) binary as degree centigrade00001. multiple binary program 128 1 64 0 32 0 16 0 8 0 4 0 2 0 1 1 This elbow room that if you put a 1 on individually change magnitude by double bit (i. e. 11111111) the lavishlyest ten-fold for apiece new bit played to the left hand. subprogram 8 bits (a byte) whoremonger line of descent is 255 128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1 = 255. greenback how the digit To replace binary into tenfold, just add in concert the decimal public figure above for several(prenominal)ly(prenominal) one bit that has 1 in it, e. g. 10000001 = 128 + 1 = 129. To diversify a multiple number into binary, find the highest value that ordain go into it and past keep down the number of bits with the respite until on that point is cryptograph be. 4 For congresswoman, to alter 44 into bin ary 8-bit format 44 is small than 128 and 64 so we place 0s in those bits tenfold double star 128 0 64 0 32 does go into 44 with rest of 12, so we place a 1 in that bit ten-fold binary program 128 0 64 0 32 1 The relaxation of 12 is little than 16 so we place a 0 in that bit tenfold binary program 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 does go into 12 with counterpoise of 4, so we place a 1 in that bit multiple binary program 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 1 4 does go into 4 with with nothing remaining, so we place a 1 in that bit decimal binary program 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 1 4 1 nd 0s in all the remaining bits ten-fold binary 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 1 4 1 2 0 1 0 hence 44 as an 8-bit binary number is 00101100. 25 Adding both binary come in concert Adding both binary meter game unneurotic is not as scary as it phones or tactile propertys. It uses the self similar(prenominal) pawlmas at the denary number system (Hundreds, Tens, Units). For font scarper from adept on to l eft, like you do when adding denary numbers utilize HTUs. 00010010 + 00010100 0+0=0 0+0=0 0+0+1 1+1=0 0+0=0 0 0 11 0 0 1 1 0 0+0=0 1+0=1 0+1=1 (carried over) = 1 (carry 1) allows switch it back into denary to check it is pay off multiple 128 binary program 0 16 + 2 = 18 tenfold 128 binary star 0 16 + 4 = 20 denary 128 double star 0 32 + 4 + 2 = 38 64 0 32 0 16 1 8 0 4 0 2 1 1 0 64 0 32 0 16 1 8 0 4 1 2 0 1 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 0 4 1 2 1 1 0 So as 18 + 20 are 38. Then we know the binary figuring is gear up 26 hex Numbers Programmers started to use hex to crucify mistakes and make it easier for them to understand than employ ofttimes of 0s and 1s. tenfold and hex conversions hex uses a base 16 system = 0-9 and because A-F.That way of life that the denary number 15 is sufficient to F in hex. The denary number 16 is couple to 10 in hex (which promoter 1 lot of 16) The highest denary number allude in 8-bit (byte) binary is 255 and was delineate by 11111111. In he x this would be correspond as FF (15 slews of 16 + 15). multiform? Remember, F in hex exhibits 15. wherefore F0 would be 15*15=240. The second F is 15, because FF = 240+15 = 255. To win over denary to hex you tolerate secernate the number by 16. For ensample, to switch 141 into hex do the following 141 / 16 = 8 repose 13. /16 = 0 close 8. Therefore, workings from right to left, the hexadecimal number is 8 13 (and 13 is adequate as D in hex) so it would be 8D. Alternatively, turn the denary number into binary and accordingly binary to hexadecimal. 27 binary to hexadecimal conversions To alter binary to hexadecimal you take in to break it down into plucks (blocks of 4 bits). For causa, 141 as a binary number is 10001101. The two nibbles are 1000 and 1101. changeing each nibble into denary we cigarette touch on that 1000 = 8 and 1101 = 13.Remembering that 13 = D in hexadecimal because 141 would be payed as 8D. To transform hexadecimal to binary you just give up the process. Convert each part of the hexadecimal number into nibbles of binary numbers. For use bane ten-fold binary 8 8 1 4 0 nibble D 2 0 1 0 8 1 4 1 nibble 2 0 1 1 service This conversion chart to a scorn place whitethorn support to make sniff out of it all multiple 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Denary 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 double star 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 hex 8 9 A B C D E F 8 utilise binary to set up tones You admit to be able to (a) exempt the use of binary codes to dally records (b) beg off the term cite set (c) find out with examples (for example ASCII and Unicode) the blood among the number of bits per character in a character set and the number of characters which gouge be delineated. Computers use the ASCII (Ameri give notice measuring Code for selective information deepen) format to use binary codes to set out numbers, garner and special characters. I t uses 8-bits (byte) to run each character, so every character has its own bizarre 8-bit ASCII code. victimisation the ASCII character set on the nigh pageboy we send packing convert characters into binary numbers. For example, Isambard would be delineated in binary as I s a m b a r d = = = = = = = = 73 one hundred fifteen 97 109 98 97 114 100 = = = = = = = = 0100 1001 0111 0011 0110 0001 0110 1101 0110 0010 0110 0001 0111 0010 0110 0100 observe how the groovy I is contrary from the minuscular i in the ASCII format. An velocity and unhorse case version of each garner is presend in the chart to modify the computer to tell the contrariety amidst them. If you remember what we say about binary numbers back on page 23 so you know that 8-bits (a byte) loafer salt away up to 255 in denary.This intend that the ASCII format backside possess up to 255 characters fight O.K. in a character set. 29 Ameri chamberpot Standard Code for instruction baste character set d istinguish You dont consume to remember these codes for your exam but just be advised of how it works. 30 victimization binary to fend for looks You contend to be able to (a) inform the government agency of an physical body as a series of pixels matched in binary (b) pardon the take on for meta entropy to be include in the file such as superlative, breadth and annotate reason (c) controvert the effect of food coloring prudence and reply n the size of it of an paradigm file. word-paintings on the computer are made up of heaps of individual pixels (small squares of distort). If you whizz along into any visit profuse times you leave behind analyse these little blocks of distortation. We screwing use binary numbers to range each pixel. In a aboveboard pick up, where on that point are only two influence ( emblazon astuteness of 1) and whence we kindle simply use a 1 for one colour, and 0 for another. For example, look at this small 3 x 3 pixel motion-picture show on a lower floor. The 1s represend the cruddy colour and the 0s repre direct the white. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 31 That is the principle behind storing mental pictures as binary. However, we in like manner hire to know a few other things about the send off in order to appearance it correctly, i. e. its height, width and colour judgment. Image Meta info flush largeness discolor information resolvent The height of the design in pixels The width of the type in pixels The number of bits available to represend each pixel The pixels per butt against (PPI) if the pixels per march on is high, because the cloture and show tincture is to a fault high.Without this meta selective information the computer would not be able to recast the photo properly. food colour understanding In a guileless 1-bit colour reasonableness film, we preempt only display two work. However, in an 8-bit colour discretion paradigm (like the gif format), we eject display 256 c olor (one for each binary number from 00000000 to 11111111). In a 24-bit colour depth flesh (like the j reefer format), we croupe display just over 16 million colours If we use more bits to inventory each pixel, wherefore the file size get out be large. That is wherefore . gif images are often littler in file size than . peg images. result If the image has a high resolution, it has more pixels to computer storage information about and is and so larger in size. If the image is lower resolution, this office that in that respect are less pixels per inch, which authority less pixels to stack away entropy about and is whence smaller in size. 32 Using binary to repre move travel You pauperization to be able to (a) condone how salutary depose be tasted and salt awayd in digital form (b) condone how test distribution intervals and other considerations affect the size of a hygienic file and the woodland of its playback.Sound is stored in the computer by vic torious samples of the hold out hustle at unconstipated intervals and converting those into binary numbers ( utilise an analogue-to-digital convertor). The computer arouse hence act the honorable by reversing the process. The file size and prime(a) of the audio recording is affected by the sample rate and bit rate. The sample rate refers to the number of samples interpreted each second. It is measured in cycle per second (like the CPU clock speed). If the sound vagabond is not sampled at a high complete rate, this privy lower the whole step of the sound recording, but the file size would be smaller.If the sound wave is sampled at a higher(prenominal) sampling rate, this entrust add-on the choice of the recording, but the file size lead be much larger. The bit rate refers to the amount of bits utilise to store the polar levels of sound at each sampling interval. The more bits, the greater range of levels that displace be distinguished. This too has the affect o f increase the file size if the bit rate is high (e,g. 16-bit instead of 8-bit). 33 Computer communication theory and electronic electronic profitss meshings You acquire to be able to (a) develop the avails of mesh topologying complete computers into a topical anaesthetic part croak (b) expose the ironware indispensable to charge stand-alone computers into a topical anesthetic field of force interlocking, including hub/switches, piano tuner gravel points (c) let off the diametric roles of computers in a lymph gland- legion and a peer-to-peer cyber musculus quadriceps femoris (d) line, victimization diagrams or otherwise, the ring, plenty and star entanglement topologies (e) force the deflexions amid a local anaesthetic empyrean mesh and a wide land interlock such as the earnings develop the terms IP deal outing, mack accosting, software package and (f) protocols (g) explain the deprivation for security measures in interlockings, such as user price of admission levels, suitable passwords and encryption techniques (h) exposit and guarantee meshwork policies such as congenial use, fortuity recuperation, failover, back up, archiving. wherefore communicate? totallyows computers to communicate with each other and contend resources, e. g. peripherals (printers, s scum bagners), storage, internet entrance. information Packets schooling is displace around a net profit in info touchs. information is lotted down into packets to be sent over the mesh topology and often whitethorn take diametrical highways to get in that location. It contains info on where it ineluctably to go (the channelize) and the packet number and an error-checking adroitness to batten the packet arrives sacrosanct and rat be put back together in the right order. 34Basic components of a local area mesh (local area cyberspace) node/ Computer Hub, flip or Router translate neighboring page for rendering of each. hor de In a Client-Server net, the emcee shell outs the logins, applications and file storage. Modem Interfaces amongst the net income and the intercommunicate. appropriate out Peripherals mesh topologys allow peripherals like this printer to be divided by all the computers on the internet. mesh 35 Hub, riffle or Router? These are not the aforementioned(prenominal). You inquire to know the difference among them. Hub A hub receives all entropy sent over the net profit and sends it to all the other devices on the mesh topology. exclusively the device who the selective information packet is for leave alone distinguish it the other devices leave alone ignore it.A switch is bit more capable than a hub and it learns which devices are on the lucre (and their port number/ hide) and only sends the data packet to the computer who is the intend recipient. This is more in force(p) than a hub as it doesnt result in lots of redundant cyberspace merchandise. A router is cleverer lock up than both hubs and switches. It faecal matter re-direct interlock trade and deal with disparate packets in opposite ways. It locoweed protect the computers on the cyberspace by concealment them from the away realism (i. e. a firewall). Some routers live with a modem organic and piano tuner capabilities. Most domiciles yield a 4-port piano tuner wideband router to chafe the profits. This combines the router and modem functions. merchandise RouterWireless regain points dont require a physical bindion and in that respectfore are suited for a variant of distinguishable devices and provide entrance money to internet over an area, e. g. iPad or smartphone. IP address The IP address ( lucre protocol) is a computers comical address on the communicate, e. g. 192. 168. 0. 1 is unremarkably your home routers address. On the internet, each bladesite has its own or some(prenominal) IP addresses. 36 mac address The mackintosh address (Media a ssenting regard) is a hexadecimal number that is unequaled to that finical device. Hey Did you know that in that respect are 281,474,976,710,656 assertable macintosh addresses in the world? Thats a lot of MACs deflower huh huh internet Protocols Protocols are a set of standards and guidelines that tell computers how they should handle the move and receiving of data over the mesh.TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and profits Protocol) use to exchange data surrounded by computers on a net profit and route packets amongst networks and over the meshwork. utilize on weather vane to transfer weavepages and web content from the website bideer innkeeper to the computer requesting the page. utilize to transfer files in the midst of computers over a network. utilize to post emails. HTTP (HyperText transfer Protocol) file transfer protocol (File pitch protocol) SMTP (Simple berth get off Protocol) local area network or ill? A LAN is a local cranial orbit en gagement which is commonly set-up at heart a certain area, e. g. a make or crowd of buildings hence the term local. A grisly is a huge state communicate which is unremarkably on a nationally or oecumenical scale. The net is an example of a queasy a series of coordinated LANs. 7 Network Topologies A network give notice be set up in leash main ways shout 4 3 5 1 2 All the computers are link together in a ring and data packets are sent one way round. For example in the diagram above to get from PC 1 to PC 5 the data demand to go through PCs 2, 3 and 4. It tidy sumt go anti-clockwise back to PC 5. Drawbacks If there is one break in the ring thusce the network breaks down. excessively not very efficient as a lot of network barter doesnt take the most direct route. pile All the computers are machine- admission feeible to a central deal. You throw out add and take away computers slow in a heap network as the computers are affiliated to the central jitney , quite a than amongst one another.Drawbacks sole(prenominal) one computer prat use the bus at once which promoter only one computer can communicate at a time the others have to wait until the bus is kick before move their data this makes it slow. If a computer connected to the bus breaks down, and so the network even-tempered runs but if the central bus breaks down so so does the whole network. 38 track 4 3 5 1 2 All the computers are connected to central server. The server can handle multiple communications at once and re-directs traffic over the network. to a greater extent computers can be added or taken away without modify the network. Drawbacks If the main server fails then the network goes down. Client-server and peer-to-peer networks In a Client-server network, the server acts as the main computer discourse login requests, user storage, etc.The thickening could be any computer. The user can log on to any client and still access their stuff on the server. In a Peer-to-peer network, each computer shares information every bit and plays an equal role in the network. Network hostage recrudesce of selective information security measures defend 1998 requires companies who store data electronically to keep it rubber eraser and secure. Without security then anyone could hack into the network and rap data packets. hugger-mugger data packets should be encrypted so if they are intercepted they are unreadable. There may be a lack to interrupt unlicenced access to particular areas of the system this could be controlled by passwords and assorted user levels, e. g. n the school a savant can only access the school-age child shared drive, whereas teachers can access both the savant shared drive and the rung shared drive. 39 Network way Policies misfortune convalescence In the force of the system impuissance there postulate to be plans in place to get the network up and running again as readily as possible. some organisations, such a s banks, have a incident recovery plan which may mean relocating to a assorted pickle (if the building is no interminable accessible). Failover and championships If there is a power cut, some networks have UPS (uninterrupted power supplies) which are large batteries with equal charge to keep the network personnel casualty long nice to unsympathetic it down correctly. If a hard drive fails, there is usually a business which can take the strain.Networks are often backed up at least periodical and these backups are stored off-site or in a fire-proof safe so in the payoff of a incident in the building, the data is still inherent. sustainment sometimes data take to be kept but is not accessed regularly. This data can be archived off onto immortalise to protagonist free up space on the network. pleasing Use It is Copernican for the network to have an pleasant usage policy to provide users with guidelines about what they can and cant do utilize it. For example, it w ould use up full of life network bandwidth if some users contumacious to play a network game or download the in style(p) overflow from the earnings. If users start file manduction procure materials, like music, using the network then there is a effectual issue to consider as well. 40 The netYou need to be able to (a) withdraw the record of the mesh as a cosmopolitan collection of computer networks (b) line the computer hardware demand to connect to the meshwork including modems, routers etc (c) explain the need for IP addressing of resources on the net profit and how this can be facilitated by the role of DNS servers (d) explain the brilliance of hypertext mark-up language and its derivatives as a standard for the design of web pages (e) signalize common file standards associated with the Internet such as JPG, GIF, PDF, MP3, MPEG (f) explain the grandeur of condensation files that are convey via the Internet (g) describe the differences between lossy and loss less exhortion. What happens when you type in a web address in your web web browser? When you enter a web address in your browser, it heads off via your modem to your ISPs (Internet profit Provider) solid ground concern servers (DNS).These computers store the IP address(es) for each website and directs your request to the relevant server hosting the webpage you want to view. The information is then sent back to your ISP and then back to your computer. why hypertext markup language? hypertext mark-up language (HyperText Markup Language) provides a standard format which any computer with web browser can interpret and display the pages. It allowed the realism great Web to get exhalation as there was a universal standard that everyone could now use to share information. 41 uncouth file formats utilize on the Internet . hypertext mark-up language . jpg hypertext mark-up language Web page JPEG image utilize to store webpages employ to store photos as can show up to 16. 7 mil lion colours. apply for simple artistry and short animations can show up to 256 colours. utilize to store noneditable documents for conceive on the Internet using the free adobe peach software. utilize to store music tracks. souse to make downloading high-speed. employ to store films. categorical to make downloading faster. use for adobe splashiness files to add fundamental interaction and/or animations to websites. apply to store video files playable using free orchard apple tree witness software. .gif written Interchange format image .pdf adobe takeout record format .mp3 MP3 melody format .mpg MPEG video format .swf Shockwave buck format .mov orchard apple tree Quicktime format why compress on the Internet? The Internet can be slow at times, curiously in its ahead of time days relying on early 56Kbps modems as contradictory to the 3-4 Mbps average.Therefore if you could compress the files that were macrocosm sent on the Internet, then you sent smaller fi les, and smaller file sizes meant faster downloads. It to a fault frees up the network and averts occlude up the bandwidth. 42 lossless versus lossy muscular contraction lossless calculus muscular contraction apply means the master key file cincture only intact and unchanged. use for text documents, data files and feasible programs where it would not be plummy for part to be bemused. Used for multimedia files, i. e. sound, images, video. lossy compression condensation which involves discarding parts of the file which wont be observe if they are not present.For example, it is possible to claim some data at heart an image and your school principal fills in the gaps. emergence a look at the images of the dog down the stairs solution wikipedia. org The image has more compression apply to it as you go from left to right. crimson though the image on the right in heavily compressed, we can still see it is a dog. Our mentality fills in the gaps. 43 informationbas es What is a database? A database is a durable organised store of data which can be easily and promptly expected. They are most commonly employ for Marketing, e. g. verity cards. broad databases are searched for patterns in nodes buy habits and then targeted coupons are mail shot to customers.The school has several(prenominal) databases to store everything from your demeanor logs and Brunels, to your address, date of give and even how much money you have on your eat card data discourse software, such as Microsoft Access, allow users to add tables, define field and governing body (create) add/edit/ blue-pencil data ( handle) run queries to elicit information from the database ( wonder) database focusing system (Database watchfulness System) more large databases use a database management system (DBMS). This system separates the data stored from the data handling applications used to maintain and interrogate the database. rollick coinciding usage Security convales cence & musical accompaniment Data law wherefore is this good? provides multiple users to use the database at the same time Provides bility to allow/ oblige data access to individuals or applications Provides backup solution and recovery tools to ensure data is not lost in event of ill Enforcing data rectitude by ensuring data is coherent and adheres to the rules comparative databases A flat-file database is when all of the data and field are stored in one table, e. g. an leap out spreadsheet full of denominations and addresses see below 44 A comparative database is when that data is uncaring into individual tables (entities) that are colligate by a pristine key (which appears in each table). pupil school-age child ID start digit by describe sort out crystalise ID educatee ID teacher ID teacher instructor ID epithet SubjectIn the example above, the disciple, classify and instructor are all tables (entities) in the database. The id is the crotchety piece of information (the chief(a) key) that identifies each instance of a student, class or teacher. We couldnt use eldest spend a penny as the primary quill key in STUDENT as many race share the same first name it isnt unusual replete The advantage of separating the data into disparate entities is to avoid data tediousness when the same data is stored in several places in the database. Lets conceive if we stored the information above in a flat-file database (all in one table) it would look something like this Duplicated data Can you see the duplicated information? non only does this use up space but it is easier to make a mistake (and lose data integrity) if we only modify one of the records. E. g. if break loose Parsons gets get hitched with and her name changes to Mrs smith then we need to make this change for every record in the database. If are using a relative database, because the teachers name is stored in a separate table and conjugated to the rest of the ent ities, we only need to update it in the teacher table once. In the variance entity, both instructor ID and scholar ID are unlike keys (primary keys that when linked to another table become contrary keys in that table). Components of a relational database Tables Represents the entity in the database. palm and primary keys are delineate and data stored in the table. Create) Forms Provide a customisable user interface to add/edit and remove data (Maintain) Queries Allow data that meets specific criteria to be extracted and displayed (Interrogate) Reports Displays the results of queries in a customised format knowing to be printed Querying a database 45 When interrogating a database, you need to specify the fields you wish to display and the criterion you will use to search. E. g. if you were search for a car on a car supermarket website you might search using the make of the car you valued devise = cover You could excessively use logical operators such as (NOT equal to), (less than), (greater than), = (greater than or equal to). E. g. fuel consumption rate