Town Quay development at Southampton Waterfront Assignment

Town Quay development at Southampton Waterfront - Assignment Example The area is considered as a prime location because of its panoramic view of the sea and the volume of business activity surrounding the area. Although it is currently being used as a car park, the business potential of the area is quite considerable. There is a need to comprehensively and meticulously plan how the development project will operate to avoid any problems that may make the venture a failure. One must always take into consideration that a comprehensive evaluation of local and government planning policies and guidelines should be undertaken to ensure that the project is harmonious with them. The main goal is that the development actually complements and benefits the surrounding area and addresses the needs of the community. In short, the project is to be undertaken with full regards to the community as a whole. It has long been recognized that this strategy is one determining factor in the financial viability and sustainability of the venture. In the development appraisal portion, an analysis is provided on the following: planning constraints, observable constraints, uncertain matters to be investigated, access and egress, neighbours and any other matters that are likely to influence the success of the development. A development plan is then provided that shows the layout for building massing, use and phasing, suggested storey heights, parking, landscaping, access and egress. We make use of an ordinance survey map to illustrate the scheme. Following this is an evaluation of how the development plans and the site appraisal fares with the aspirations of the local planning authority. It is also in this section where an analysis of how the scheme will fit in with the established property market, ABP's dock estate and the surrounding buildings. After all this, a residual valuation that analyzes the commercial viability is presented along with the provision of 3 options showing how ABP may obtain a return from the site. Section 1 - Appraisal of the Site Planning Constraints Local and government planning policies should be evaluated when planning for any development. Any project that fails to do this has a greater chance of failure as local laws are sufficient grounds for non-continuance of the project. In any case, we are developing the area for the local population and we don't want them to be alienated. In evaluating, there is a need to determine what construction practices and parameters are allowed on the area. For example, vertical structures may only have a

Advantages of Television Essay Example for Free

Advantages of Television Essay Nowadays, many people all over the world spend most of their free time watching television. No one can deny the fact that, there is a television in almost every home. It is one of the most common entertainments for people all over the world. However, since its arrival, television has brought to man, many advantages. First and foremost, television plays an important role in our daily activities. It keeps us informed of all current affairs in the world. Events through television are more vivid than those through books and magazines. This is because we can watch these events which are sometimes aired on live telecast. Apart from that, television helps us enrich our spiritual lives. Our knowledge is broadened in many ways. Through language teaching programs , we can learn the language we like, such as, English, French, German, Chinese, Japanese and Spanish. We can also brush up our skills through various programs in television. We can become skillful at doing jobs, baking cakes or arranging flowers through practical programs taught on television. It is also undeniable that, television is a source of recreation. Humorous stories and funny films bring us minutes of relaxation after a hard day’s work. For me, sitting comfortably in an armchair to watch an international football match on television is more interesting than having to queue for tickets at a crowded stadium. In a nutshell, television is indeed useful to us when we know how to use it. Nevertheless, be careful not to overindulge ourselves in it and use in a discerning manner.

Morality in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter Essay -- Scarlet Letter ess

Morality in The Scarlet Letter      Ã‚   "...pain is in itself an evil; and indeed, without exception, the only evil; or else the words good and evil have no meaning." (Chase 127) In the novel The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne presents a very clear view of his stand on morality, which he carefully cultivates through the course of the story. The moral, which is "Be true!" applies equally well to all of the characters in the novel. Though his view does seem to stand as true through the length of the story, it does not, unfortunately, transfer as smoothly to our lives today. In essence it is a hedonistic view to take, which requires a slight stretch as to his interpretation as to how evil, and important, an individual's pain is unto itself. By looking at each of the main characters in turn, it may be determined exactly what his view was on this subject, and how it may be applied to life in our society today.    Because his moral is more explicitly defined as "Be true! Be true! Be true! Show freely to the world, if not your worst, some trait by which your worst may be inferred!" Hester Prynne is a sound example, for she did exactly that. She could not, and did not, hide her sin, and as a result wore it clearly at all times on her breast, hiding nothing. While at first it may seem as though she was punished more than any other character, because she was so physically punished, Hawthorne makes it clear that she was the most satisfied character in the novel, eventually finding peace with herself because she had no pressing secrets to gnaw at her conscience. Physically, however, the Puritan imposition of punishment was harsh, and unyielding. It brought her below many of the men and women of the town, and had the psychologic... .... 47-49). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Canby, Henry S. (1996). "A Skeptic Incompatible with His Time and His Past." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 55- 63). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Chase, Richard (1996). "The Ambiguity of the Scarlet Letter." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 145-152). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Gartner, Matthew. "The Scarlet Letter and the Book of Esther: Scriptural Letter and Narrative Life." Studies in American Fiction (1995): 131-144.    Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. New York: St. Martins, 1991.    Loring, G. B. (1850). "The Scarlet Letter and Transcendentalism." Massachusetts Quarterly Review [On-line], pp. 1-6. Available: http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/nh/loring.html    Scharnhorst, Gary. The Critical Response to Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter. New York: Greenwood, 1992.

Julius Caesar Play Essay

In play, Julius Caesar, it has strength that makes the play a famous play. In the play, we could understand characters emotion and behaviors clearly since it is in their own words instead of a narration. From the text from Cassius’s dialogue,† For my part, I have walked about the streets, submitting me unto the perilous night.† we could emphasizes how Cassius is showing off to Casca the braveness he has. Another point would be the speeches that are introduce in the play. Another example would be in Act 1, scene 2 where Antony comments, â€Å"When Caesar says, do this, it is performed. Sometimes not only the characters dialogue could be recognize as his or her personality and characteristics. In this text by Antony, we could feel the powerful leadership from Caesar. Speeches help a better understanding of each character thought towards different people. Such as the speech that Antony gave where it begins with â€Å"Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your earsâ⠂¬ ¦..† In this speech Antony keep repeating â€Å"Brutus is an honorable man†, this shows sarcasms that Antony is speaking out. While reading this speech, you will find confusions where Antony is criticizing Brutus action but on the other hand he keeps stating that Brutus is an honorable man that opposites other facts. This kind of passage grabs the reader attention to think profoundly. The weakness would be the organization of the plot. I believe the play is moving in a speed what I believe is fast. Fast play makes it difficult to recognize clearly with each scenes and acts. For example from the meeting of conspirators to the death of Julius Caesar flows quite rapid. Between those two scenes, I feel a bit empty cause no way that these conspirators did not planned in a way that they could successfully without any obstacles kill Julius Caesar. The play might improve if the process of planning would be added between those two periods. We might absorb characters; personality and perspective towards this event during their planning. Another example would be the death of Calupurnia. The death news was interrupted abruptly during before the war. Calpurnia played such an important role when comforting Brutus and place a spy on him. This shows the role of women played in Roman however she had passed away in a second where no one has expected. Overall the organization is pretty flow and vivid enough. I like how each scene was isolated by the characters in the play where one side is mainly characters that dislike Caesar and the other side would be characters that supports Caesar. The only error would be the speed of the play that gives no time for readers to vividly understand the story. The descriptions of different characters are the best element in the play. Characters were vividly described as I stated earlier. One more example would be when Cassius stated, â€Å"The torrent roared, and we did buffet it with lusty sinews, throwing it aside and stemming it with hearts of controversy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..or I sink!†Ã¢â‚¬  In this dialogue we could understand two characters’ thoughts and history background. Cassius put up this fact show that he believes Caesar is not as capable as he should be. Another would be the background of Caesar where he was such a weaker. The diaglouge is very interesting because we could see through what each character wanted to express. One of the interesting dialogues was between Antony and Octavious. Octavious argued to refuse the instruction from Antony. Antony begins to realize the similar power between Octavious and Caesar when Octavious insist to follow left instead of right, so Antony called Octavious as Caesar after the argument of the formation.

Cultivating Culturally Responsive Leaders Essay

The purpose of this study is to make school administrators aware and familiar with the challenges and obstacles ELL students encounter. With such a growing population of ELL students, teachers are having to become more and more aware of instructional strategies. Teachers are now being held accountable more than ever for their student’s performance and need to make sure every student makes learning gains. With South Florida’s increasing ELL population teachers are struggling to get these students, whose first language is not English, to speak, read, and write proficiently in English before they take the FCAT or by the end of the year to be able to show learning gains. This case study will take place at Winston Park K-8 School. Winston Park is located in a suburban, middle to lower class multiethnic community in the southwest section of Miami-Dade County. The student population is composed of eighty-six percent Hispanics, nine percent white, one percent black, and four percent other. Sixty percent of the students are eligible for free and reduced lunch, 46% are ELL, six percent are SWD, and four percent are gifted students. Average daily attendance is 98%. There is a total of 96 instructional staff members. Ninety-one percent of the instructional staff is highly qualified. Twenty-six percent of teachers have received advanced degrees. Parental involvement is high and growing. The student interviewed is an eight-year-old third grade student. Gabriela came from Cuba in March of 2012. Gabriela and her family came from Cuba in search of freedom and a better life. Gabriela came to the United States with her father and mother. Gabriela states that they lived in a poor neighborhood and struggled to get the little food that they did to put on the table. After school Gabriela would go to work with her mom at a farm to pick fruits, vegetables, and even milk cows. Gabriela has showed great growth in the one year that she has been in the Miami-Dade County Public school system. Although Gabriela has attended Winston Park from the beginning of this school year, this is the second school she’s attended in the district since arriving from Cuba. Gabriela’s mom informed that she was very unhappy at her previous school but that now Gabriela loved waking up in the morning to attend school. Even though both of her parents work they are very involved in her studies and will stop at nothing to make sure Gabriela gets a good education. Gabriela is not your average recently arrived ELL student. In the short time she has been here, Gabriela has learned to read, write and comprehend English just as well, if not at times better than many of her non-ELL classmates. Gabriela has made Honor Roll every nine-week grading period and was even referred to be tested for the gifted program. In this case study we will answer how do ELLs, their parents, teachers, and other stakeholder understand ELLs academic experiences in school and how can administrators work be informed by a case study that focuses on ELLs and their experiences in Florida schools. Literature Review In reviewing literature based on paired reading and fluency increase, I found several sources that supported my hypothesis that pairing low (ESOL) and high (Non-ESOL) students during reading is an effective intervention. These findings are particularly significant to those educators who are seeking ways to help students with reading fluency difficulty. Reading fluency is important for comprehension. When students read efficiently and accurately, then they can comprehend what they read more easily. In primary grades, students learn to read but in upper elementary grades students read to learn. What is fluency? According to the National Reading Panel (2000), fluency is the ability to read text aloud with speed, accuracy, and proper expression (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001; Meyer & Felton, 1991; Rasinkski, 2003). Fluent readers can recognize the majority of the words they read automatically without having to decode individual words; they are ble to dedicate their attention to the ultimate goal of reading: comprehension. Fluency is the bridge between word recognition and reading comprehension (Kuhn & Stahl, 2000; Nathan & Stanovich, 1991; Rasinksi & Padak, 2004). While studies have not determined the ideal number of times necessary to achieve reading fluency, researchers say the more times the better. A typical reader needs to read a passage four times to reach maximum fluency levels (National Reading Panel, 2000). Beginning readers and struggling older readers tend to read slowly, haltingly, and with little or no expression. Often as a result, text comprehension is affected, confidence levels are low, and they do not enjoy reading. Therefore, fluency is and should be a primary goal of literacy instruction. The oral reading fluency norms for grades 1-5 are: 1st 53-111, 2nd 89-142, 3rd 107-162, 4th 123-180, and 5th 139-194 (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006). While conducting my research, I found different types of reading interventions that can help increase an ESOL student’s fluency: Choral Reading, Duet Reading, Audio-Recorded Books, Echo Reading, and Paired Reading (Hudson et al. , 2005; The Partnership for Reading, 2001). In choral reading, a group of students read aloud from the same selection. The teacher can read along to set the pace and model targeted skills. Students can improve their fluency skills, including appropriate pausing and expression, by reading along with a group of readers or with a strong reader as a partner (Hudson, 2005). In duet reading, a stronger reader is paired with a less-fluent reader. The stronger reader sets the pace and provides visual tracking by moving his or her finger below each word as it is read in unison. In audio-recorded books, the student reads aloud with an audio-recorded version of a book. The purpose is to encourage the weaker reader to read along with the tape. In echo reading, the adult reads a short passage and then invites the child to â€Å"Say what I say† or â€Å"Copy me,† encouraging the child to repeat what the adult has read (Robertson & Davig, 2002). In this way, the adult models fluent reading and then provides the child with an opportunity for immediate practice. In paired reading, children who are struggling with reading fluency are paired up with a more capable reader. In this strategy, the fluent reader and reader take turns reading by lines or pages (Mathes, Fuchs, Fuchs, Henley, & Sanders, 1994). In evaluating the different types of reading interventions, I found that paired reading is the most commonly used to increase fluency. According to the report of The National Reading Panel (2000), guided repeated oral reading is the most effective procedure for developing reading fluency (Kuhn & Stahl, 2000; Rasinski & Hoffman, 2003). Paired reading was originally developed as a strategy for parents and children reading at home, but it is easily adapted for classroom use in intervention lessons (Morgan & Lyon, 1979; Topping, 1989). Paired reading requires the reading partners to read aloud. Reading aloud to elementary school students can have many beneficial effects; it improves their language skills, motivates them to read on their own, makes students familiar with books, and expands vocabulary (Saban, 1994). Research indicates that repeated paired reading leads not only to improving in reading the passage but also improvement in decoding, reading rate, expression, and comprehension of passages that the reader has not previously seen (Dowhower, 1994; Kuhn & Stahl, 2000; National Reading Panel, 2000). Rasinski and Fredericks (1991) reported on a paired reading project launched by the Akron, Ohio Public School System; the results of the project suggest that paired reading also helped improve reading performance but in addition helps improve reading motivation and child bonding. Studies on paired reading showed that students of all ages can make extraordinary reading gains. In one study of paired reading over a period of six to ten weeks, students made a gain of at least six months in reading (Limbrick, McNaughton, & Cameron, 1985). In another study, students made an average of three months’ gain for every month of paired reading. The less proficient readers were not the only ones who benefited; the student who served as the tutor also made substantial gains in their reading abilities (Topping, 1989). In summation, the characteristics of the paired reading instruction (positive one-to-one collaboration between skilled and less-skilled readers, reader engagement, practice, evidence of progress, and reader expression) support my hypothesis that pairing a low and high student during reading is an effective intervention for fluency increase. It may promote rapid turnaround in reader proficiency for less-skilled readers. Furthermore this finding is particularly significant to those educators who are seeking ways to help students with reading fluency difficulty. Method Three people participated in this study: Gabriela, an eight-year old student in third grade and an ESOL level one, her mom and the teacher, Mrs. Sanz. Everyone has given full consent and agreed to interview with us and give us information on Gabriela and their culture. Every person interviewed was cooperative and helpful throughout the interview. The teacher was a crucial part to our interview since she is the one who works directly with Gabriela on a daily basis and can best describes her strengths and weaknesses. During the interview, we asked Mrs. Sanz to please provide us with information and data about Gabriela. We explained to her teacher and mother that all of Gabriela’s information would be kept confidential and that her name would be changed for privacy purposes. Some of the data we collected was from the SAT (Stanford Achievement Test), FAIR (Florida Assessment in Instruction and Reading), and the CELLA (Comprehensive English Language Learning Assessment). While the teacher pulled out useful pieces of data she gave us a synopses of how Gabriela is in class and how she is getting along with all the other students. Mrs. Sanz feels she’s a bright young girl (probably gifted) with lots of potential. She is self-directive and puts forth maximum effort. Mrs. Sanz also told us Gabriela enjoys helping the other students in class. Mrs. Sanz feels this may be due to the high level of importance her parents have instilled in her regarding school. Sandra, Brenda and Mrs. Sanz all discussed and analyzed the data and we identified all her strong areas as well as a few minor weak areas. Sandra Ramallo and Brenda Gomez conducted the study. Sandra and Brenda were both present at all interviews and had the opportunity to talk to each interviewee. Since the study was conducted by both Sandra and Brenda the work load was distributed amongst each other. Brenda worked on the introduction, method, findings, and consent forms. Sandra worked on the literature review, discussion, and the transcription of the interview.

Greed Essays - Death Valley, Films, Greed, John D. Rockefeller

Greed Essays - Death Valley, Films, Greed, John D. Rockefeller Greed Greed is a selfish desire for more than one needs or deserves. Greed can make honest men murderers. It has made countries with rich valuable resources into the poorest countries in the world. We are taught it is bad and not to practice it. But consider a world without greed, where everyone is as sharing as Mother Theresa was. The progress of humankind would be at a standstill. Greed has given our society faster travel, better service, more convenience, and most importantly, progress.Greed has created thousands of billionaires and millions of millionaires. But why is greed associated with evil? In their day, most capitalists like Cornelius Vanderbilt and John D. Rockefeller were depicted as pure evil. Vanderbilt stole from the poor. Rockefeller was a snake. But the name-calling did not come from the consumers; it was the competing businesses that complained. The newspapers expanded on these comments, calling them "robber barons." These are inaccurate terms for these businessmen. They were not barons because they all started penniless and they were not robbers because they did not take it from anyone else.Vanderbilt got rich by making travel and shipping faster, cheaper, and more luxurious. He built bigger, faster, and more efficient ships. He served food on his ships, which the customers liked and he lowered his costs. He lowered the New York to Hartford fare from $8 to $1. Rockefeller made his fortunes selling oil. He also lowered his costs, making fuel affordable for the working-class people. The working-class people, who use to go to bed after sunset, could now afford fuel for their lanterns. The people, who worked an average 10-12 hours a day, could now have a private and social life. The consumers were happy, the workers were happy, and they were happy.Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft Corporation is another example of a greedy person. He is the richest man in the world with about $40 billion and he continues to pursue more wealth. Just because he has $40 billio n does not mean the rest of the world lost $40 billion, he created more wealth for the rest of the world. His software created new ways of saving time and money and created thousands of new jobs. Bill Gates got rich by persuading people to buy his product. His motive may have been greed, but to achieve that, he had to give us what we wanted. Both parties benefited from the transaction and everybody wins.In general, many businesses donate a percent of its wealth to charity. People not only want but also expect those businesses to donate their money away. Vanderbilt gave one percent of his money away to start Vanderbilt University. Ted Turner donated $1 billion to the United Nations. But why do people think that giving away money is better than making money? Giving away money is much easier than building a new business. Building a new business creates new jobs for people, giving someone the means to support himself. When you give money away, it does not help them become more self-suff icient.Charity does not always make big impacts, as people believe they do. For example, who changed the world more, Micheal Milken or Mother Teresa? Milken pioneered a new way for companies to raise money, creating tens of thousands of new jobs. He saved Mattel, the toy maker, by his junk bonds. It is now the world's biggest toy company. His bonds rescued TWA, Revlon, and many other companies. Millions of people now joy cheaper phone calls because he funded the phone company, MCI. His bonds made CNN and other Turner companies possible. On the other hand, Mother Teresa donated every penny to charity and helped tens of thousands of people in slums of Third-World countries. She spent her life doing charity work for the poor. Her deeds continue after her death; four thousand sisters now continue what she begun. Without a doubt, people would say Mother Teresa did more for the world. But their judgements are blinded by the fact that they are looking at their motives. Michael Milken didn' t suffer; he didn't go into the slums. Mother Teresa went into the slums and she suffered. Milken persuaded wealth because of greed and Mother Teresa did

Biculturism and Marginalization Essays

Biculturism and Marginalization Essays Biculturism and Marginalization Essay Biculturism and Marginalization Essay * Ross-Sheriff ( 2011 ) commented that international migration forms have * changed as a effect of wide societal. political. economic. and environmental * tendencies and explained the causes of the drive forces were including war. * globalisation. urbanisation. and altering cultural norms sing societal functions and * duties ( Ross-Sheriff. 2011 ) . With these complex tendencies of migration * forms. Van Hear ( 2010 ) viewed migration as a procedure which was an built-in portion * of broader societal transmutations. but which besides had its ain internal kineticss with * other factors related to the migrating procedure. determining societal transmutation in their * ain manner. Migration was besides linked in complex ways to category. gender. coevals. * ethnicity and other societal factors. which were embodied in places in place and host * communities. and in work and domestic relationships. all of which might be * transformed in the class of the migratory procedure ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . To understand this complex procedure of migration. particularly under altering fortunes of one civilization to another. it might be utile to construct conceptual tools for understanding these ephemeral procedures in migration surveies and in societal scientific discipline more widely ( Van hear. 2010 ) . They besides include interceding agents and passages that need besides to be accounted for. every bit good as intersections among category. gender. coevals. ethnicity and other societal ruptures every bit good as the chief drive forces of migration ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . Of class there were other of import constructs such as dealingss between clip and infinite. between kineticss or procedures and results. and between construction and bureau that needed to acquire attending ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . However. it is impossible to discourse all different theoretical constructs involved in different types of migration procedure in the current limited survey. Rather. this survey tried to concentrate on psychological impacts such as cultural individuality and self-pride on migration through socialization procedures peculiarly on family- related migration because different forms of migration produced different communities and resulted in bring forthing different migratory individualities including changing degrees of psychological hurt ( Jones. 2008 ) . Further. few empirical surveies have focused on migrator grownups populations. Most migrators designation related literatures tended to associate more for striplings or immature kids because individuality formation might be peculiarly disputing in this cohort. particularly when the values and beliefs of their natal civilization differed significantly from those of the host society ( Sodowsky. Kwan. A ; Pannu. 1995 ; as cited in Farver. Narang. A ; Bhadha. 2002 ) . Therefore. this survey focused on cultural individuality and self-identification issues of grownup migrants’ themselves within a household construction harmonizing to different theoretical theoretical accounts relevant to version of new civilizations. because household was the basic instrument in the society ( Nesdale. Rooney. A ; Smith. 1997 ) . In fact. most cultural acquisition theories developed and evolved in 1990s. when international migration became a cardinal issue in international political relations at the beginning of 1990s. As Castle ( 2002 ) argued that migration. development and international dealingss were closely connected as migration was a major factor of transmutation for both sending and receiving states for different types of migrators ( Castle. 2002 ) . With this position. this survey by and large focused on those migration civilization acquisition theories developed in 1990 instead so looking at current positions in the most recent literatures. which really have evolved from these original theories in 1990s ( Castle. 2002 ) . As the findings from these research surveies has had been assorted or sometimes contradictory. it was of import to understand the exact nature of the relationship between migrator cultural designation and the socialization procedure both need to be specified and assessed decently with coherent measurings and theoretical premises ( Nesdale et Al. . 1997 ) . Important theoretical constructs: cultural individuality. socialization. biculturism. and marginalization. Harmonizing to Phinney ( 1990 ; as cited in Farver. Narang A ; Bhadha. . 2002 ) . cultural individuality and socialization were related but separate concepts. Cultural individuality involves an individual’s self-identification as a group member. a sense of belonging to an cultural group. attitudes toward cultural group of rank. and grade of cultural group engagement ( Farver et al. . 2002 ) . The term socialization was defined in anthropology as those phenomena. which resulted when groups of persons holding different civilizations came into uninterrupted first-hand contact with subsequent alterations in the original form of either or both groups ( Redfield. Linton. A ; Herskovits. 1936 ; as cited in Birman. 1994 ) . Although socialization was a impersonal term in this context ( that is. alteration might take topographic point in either or both groups ) . in pattern. socialization tended to bring on more alterations in one of the groups than in the other ( Berry. 1990a ; as cited in Berry. 1997 ) Berry ( 1997 ) argued that in all plural societies. cultural groups and their single members. in both dominant and non-dominant state of affairss. must cover with the issue of how to acculturate. Harmonizing to Berry ( 1997 ) . four socialization schemes were introduced: assimilation. separation. marginalisation. and integrating. When persons do non wish to keep their cultural individuality and seek day-to-day interaction with other new civilizations. the assimilation scheme is defined. In contrast. when persons place a value on keeping on to their original civilization. and at the same clip wish to avoid interaction with others. so the separation is defined ( Berry. 1997 ) . When there is an involvement in both keeping one’s original civilization. while in day-to-day interactions with other groups. integrating is the option ; here. there is some grade of cultural unity maintained. while at the same clip seeking to take part as an built-in portion of the larger societal web ( Berry. 1997 ) . Last. when there is small possibility or involvement in cultural care ( frequently for grounds of implemented cultural loss ) . and small involvement in holding dealingss with others ( frequently for grounds of exclusion or favoritism ) so marginalisation is defined ( Berry. 1997 ) . However. this socialization categories theoretical account has been criticized methodologically ( Rudmin. 2003. 2009 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) because all four of Berry’s classs were represented in the same manner by making the two by two matrix of socialization classs between high and low. However. the cut off point between high and low was arbitrary and would differ across samples. doing comparings across surveies hard. ensuing in the fact that all four classs existed and were every bit valid ( Rudmin. 2003 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) and proposing that non all of Berry’s classs might be in a given sample or population. and that some classs might hold multiple subtypes ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . In peculiar. Berry ( 1997 ) viewed the term biculturism as mentioning to socialization that involved the single at the same time in the two civilizations that were in contact in integrative ways. which appeared to be a consistent forecaster of more positive results than the three options of assimilation. separation. or marginalisation. Berry and his co-workers ( Sam A ; Berry. 1995 ) assessed the socialization schemes of assorted immigrant groups in North America and the consequences showed that bicultural persons experienced less acculturational emphasis. anxiousness and fewer psychological jobs significantly. while marginalized persons suffered the most psychological hurt. including jobs with self-identification and cultural disaffection. which adversely affected their self-esteem ( Farver et al. . 2002 ) . However. Shiraev and Levy ( 2007 ) explained acculturational emphasis as a negative feeling that a marginalized individual might see as a straitening psychological reaction to any unfamiliar cultural environment based on the premise that individual and groups undergoing any societal and cultural alteration should see a certain sum of psychological hurt. Generally. many early definitions of socialization focused on exposure to two civilizations at the same time as a civilization daze. which was a reactive province of specific pathology or shortage. instead than taking advantage of being bicultural ( Berry A ; Annis. 1974 ; Shiraev et Al. . 2007 ) . The cogency of marginalisation as an attack to socialization by Berry ( 1997 ) was besides questioned ( Del Pilar A ; Udasco. 2004 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) . Schawartz et Al. argued that the likeliness that a individual would develop a cultural sense of ego without pulling on either the heritage or having cultural contexts would be less likely to. The marginalisation attack might be true merely for the little section of migrators who rejected both their heritage and receiving civilizations ( Berry. 2006b ) . Indeed. surveies utilizing through empirical observation based constellating methods have found little or nonexistent marginalisation groups and graduated tables that attempted to mensurate marginalisation typically had hapless dependability and cogency compared with graduated tables for the other classs ( Cuellar. Arnold. A ; Maldonado. 1995 ; Unger et Al. . 2002 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) . As described earlier. the impact of migrator cultural individuality on psychological hurt had relatively diverse points of positions if they were either negative or positive reactions. depending on different theoretical frames. For illustration. Social Identity Theory ( Tajfel A ; Turner. 2001 ) and Self-Categorization Theory ( Turner. 1987 ) emphasized more on the importance to persons of their designation with peculiar societal groups. Social Identity Theory ( Tajfel A ; Turner. 2001 ; as cited in Yip. Gee. A ; Takeuchi. 2008 ) viewed a possible account for why cultural individuality might buffer the effects of favoritism. Harmonizing to this theory. persons chose from an array of possible societal individuality groups and. one time those groups were chosen. persons focused on the positive facets of their in-group. which helped to hike their ain regard. proposing that cultural individuality was more of import to their overall individuality ( Yip et al. . 2009 ) . In contrast. if ethnicity was a cardinal constituent of one’s individuality. it might really worsen the effects of favoritism. ensuing in a greater negative impact on mental wellness. harmonizing to self-categorization theory ( Turner. Hogg. Oakes. Reicher. A ; Wetherell. 1987 ; as cited in Yip et Al. . 2008 ) . proposing that people should be more in melody with environmental cues that were relevant to an of import facet of their individuality. That is. experiences of racial favoritism might be such a cue relevant to their cultural individuality. Indeed. research suggested that African American grownups and striplings who reported strong racial centrality were besides more likely to describe experiences of racial favoritism ( Neblett. Shelton. A ; Sellers. 2004 ; Sellers. Caldwell. Schmeelk-Cone. A ; Zimmerman. 2003 ; Sellers A ; Shelton. 2003 ; as cited in Yip et Al. . 2008 ) . However. despite this accent by societal theoreticians. they tended to bury the larger literature that involved with both ethnicity and the socialization procedure ( Liebkind. 1993 ; 1996 ; as cited in Nesdale. Rooney A ; Smith. 1997 ) . First of all. these different findings resulted from deficiency of inclusion of socialization itself as a variable methodologically when socialization was considered as a phenomenon in research designs ( Sam and Berry. 2006 ) . Without including socialization as a variable. the accounts for human behaviour similarities and differences across populations would stay uncomplete ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Second. a farther unfavorable judgment of the socialization literatures was that the same two socialization procedures. and the same four-acculturation classs. characterized all migrators equally- regardless of the type of migrator. the states of beginning and colony. and the cultural group in inquiry. harmonizing to Berry’s ( 1980 ) theoretical account and other similar attacks ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Finally. the huge bulk of surveies in the socialization literature have focused on behavioural socialization ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . That is. most widely used socialization steps included chiefly ( or merely ) points measuring linguistic communication usage and other cultural patterns ( e. g. . Cuellar. Arnold. A ; Maldonado. 1995 ; Stephenson. 2000 ; Szapocznik. Kurtines. A ; Fernandez. 1980 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) due to accepting the fact that cultural patterns might supply merely a just placeholder for cultural version ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . Theoretical models for socialization research Shiraev A ; Levy ( 2007 ) claimed that cross-cultural psychologists normally used three attacks to analyze human activities in assorted cultural scenes. They were the sociobiological attack. the sociological attack and eco-cultural attack ( Shiraev et al. . 2007 ) . In peculiar. the eco-cultural attack emphasized both the environment and the person were seen as unfastened and substituting systems ( Shiraev et al. . 2007 ) . presenting John Berry whom originally developed this theory further in modern-day cross-cultural psychological science. Shiraev et Al. ( 2007 ) besides pointed out that specializers should to be able to explicate how. why. and to what extent people differed from one another. when ecological. biological. cultural. and acculturation factors were identified and taken into consideration ( Berry. J. W. . Poortinga. Y. H. . Segall. M. H. . A ; Dasen. P. R. . 1992 ; as cited in Shiraev et Al. . 2007 ) . In related to the concerns pointed by Shiraev et Al. ( 2007 ) . Berry ( 1997 ) argued earlier there were of import links between cultural context and single behavioural development. showing what happened to persons who developed in one cultural context when trying to re-establish their lives in another one through his socialization research model. by corroborating the fact that socialization was one of the most complex countries of research in cross-cultural psychological science because the procedure involved more than one civilization and in two distinguishable senses ( Berry. 1997 ) . Harmonizing to Berry ( 1997 ) . the construct of socialization was employed to mention to the cultural alterations ensuing from different cultural groups encountered. while the constructs of psychological socialization and version were employed to mention to the psychological alterations and eventual results that occur as a consequence of persons sing socialization. In another words. socialization phenomena resulted from contact between two or more civilizations and research on socialization had to be comparative in order to understand fluctuations in psychological results that were the consequence of cultural fluctuations in the two groups in contact ( Berry. 1997 ) . In peculiar. this model viewed the integrating theoretical account of socialization schemes the most desirable among other schemes. sing it the same as the biculturalism theoretical account ( Berry. 1997 ) . For illustration. Berry and his co-workers ( Berry. 1980 ; Berry. J. W. . Kim. U. . Power. S. . Young. M. A ; Bujaki. M. . 1989 ; Berry. Kim. Minde. A ; Mok. 1987 ; Sam A ; Berry. 1995 as cited in Farver et Al. . 2002 ) Assessed the socialization schemes of assorted immigrant groups in North America and the consequence showed that integrating was the most psychologically adaptative attitude. reasoning that integrated or bicultural persons experienced less acculturational emphasis and anxiousness and manifested fewer psychological jobs than those who were marginalized. separated. or assimilated. whereas marginalized persons suffered the most psychological hurt. including jobs with self-identification and cultural disaffection. which besides affected their self-esteem ( Farver et al. . 2002 ) . However. Phinney. Cantu. and Kurtz ( 1997 ) found that American individuality was associated with self-esteem merely for non-Hispanic White persons. but non for other cultural groups. These assorted consequences as explained above raised two issues in the socialization literatures. First of all. cultural patterns might offer merely a replacement for cultural adpatations. as Portes and Rumbaut ( 2001 as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) mentioned that many Asiatic American immature grownups in their sample were non proficient in their native linguistic communications. even though they still perceived their designation with their parents’ states of beginning and maintained many of their values ( Schwarz et al. . 2010 ) . Second. most research workers on biculturism did non sufficiently specify an accurate operational definition of biculturism so that reading of those research consequences were debatable ( Birman. 1994 ) . Indeed. one determination in the United States. was that self-identification as American was markedly higher in non-Hispanic White persons than in cultural minority groups ( e. g. . Devos A ; Banaji. 2005 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) and many White Americans did non perceived themselves as members of an cultural group ( Schildkraut. 2007 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) . In brief. different operational definition jobs of socialization arose from different theoretical theoretical accounts of socialization sing to their premises ( LaFromboise. Coleman. A ; Gerton. 1993 ) . LaFromboise et Al. ( 1993 ) assumed socialization as one of replacements among the biculturism theoretical accounts. Biculturism as defined in this theory was viewed as the alternation theoretical account. which implied an person in two civilization contacts could be competent in both civilizations without losing one of the cultures’ competences in distinguishable cultural contexts as alternation theoretical account. whereas. merger theoretical account meant a blended cultural individuality. consisting of a synthesis of facets of both civilizations ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . However. Berry’s ( 1997 ) incorporating attack of biculturism differed from the bicultural theoretical account ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ; as cited in Birman. 1994 ) and it emphasized more on the relationship between the two cultural groups based on its inexplicit premise that one of two civilizations were higher than the other within a individual societal construction ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . Benet-Martinez and co-workers found that blended bicultural persons tended to describe higher self-pride and lower psychological hurt than a fringy population ( Chen et Al. . 2008 as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) because the consistent handiness of both cultural flows within the person’s mundane life increased the easiness of triping the right cultural scheme in conformity with their environmental state of affairss ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . In contrast. Tadmor. Tetlock. and Peng ( 2009 ) argued that the bicultural theoretical account considered those fringy persons in positive ways. when there was small involvement in cultural care and small involvement in holding dealingss with others. proposing positive facets of being a fringy individual might be ( 1 ) sharing his or her status with others of the same original civilization ; ( 2 ) engaging in institutional patterns that were shared by other fringy people ; ( 3 ) sing no major defeat from societal outlooks ; and ( 4 ) still comprehending himself or herself to be a member of a group ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . Harmonizing to Sam and Berry ( 2006 ) . many surveies of how migrators coped with intercultural contacts had disagreements in the ways in which they were operationalized and measured. As no standardised or widely accepted socialization steps existed. it was necessary to plan a clear and expressed preparation of socialization instrument in order to measure socialization adequately ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Further Sam and Berry ( 2006 ) pointed out that most empirical surveies widely used a self-report type of questionnaires that had been recognized restrictions such as societal desirableness. stressing obtaining divergent proof by beginning of information other than the respondents’ studies. Therefore. it is critical to understand each theory within its specific premises and non to generalise across all state of affairss irrespective of their similar findings ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . As this survey discovered migrants’ socialization procedures so far within specific theoretical models. literature findings in different research were assorted as to whether persons could be extremely acculturated and at the same clip be strongly identified with their cultural group ( Farver. Narang. A ; Bhadha. . 2002 ) . These confounding jobs ab initio evolved because of the context in which migration agreements and their socialization procedures were basically transformed and progressively unsure due to globalisation ( Landolt A ; Da. 2005 ) . Shiraev A ; Levy ( 2007 ) suggested a new attack to cross-cultural psychological science in the 21st century. which was linked to the construct of globalisation. Globalization was defined as a proliferation of cross-border flow and multinational webs due to new engineerings of communicating and conveyance that allowed frequent and multi-directional watercourses of people. thoughts and cultural symbols ( Castle. 2010 ) . Castle besides argued that globalisation leads to major alterations in the character of international migration. In other words. the context for migratory incorporation has already changed radically and will go on to make so. The rise of multiculturalism itself instead than assimilation or biculturism is one mark of this. but is non the terminal of the narrative: new signifiers of individuality and belonging go beyond multiculturalism ( Castle. 2010 ) . Even though there is limited empirical grounds for clear statements for globalisation. there likely are extremely widely distributed groups who feel at place everyplace such as planetary concern and professional elites might match with this image. But most members of multinational communities fall between these extremes. and likely have contradictory and fluctuating individualities ( Castle. 2002 ) . Decisions This survey explored that a particular instance of cultural psychological science was the survey of how persons respond to state of affairss where they were in passage between their original civilization and another that differed from it in some respects in footings of socialization. particularly within a specific theoretical frame that could use to the specific state of affairs ( Adler A ; Gielen. 1994 ) . There was no individual theory widely accepted by all societal scientists to hold with the outgrowth and prolongation of international migration forms in the universe under globalisation ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . proposing that the modern-day migrating context in which such migrating agreements were realized basically unbroken transforming so that it became progressively unsure ( Landolt and Da. 2005 ) . Although the subject of cultural contact and individual’ alteration has attracted considerable attending in modern-day cross-cultural psychological science. the field has been characterized by a deficiency of theoretical coherency. definitional jobs with cardinal concepts. and individual sample surveies that limit the external cogency of empirical cross-cultural research ( Ward and Kenney. 1994 ) . As socialization is a procedure which takes topographic point over clip. and which consequences in alterations both in the civilization and in the single civilization alterations. it would be ideal o comparison two sets of informations are compared over clip utilizing the same people. However. in pattern. it is impossible in most socialization research scenes ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Alternatively. a common option to longitudinal research is cross-sectional research in which a time-related variable. such as length of abode or generational position can be used for the generalizability of socialization theories ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . In general. research workers of migrating surveies need to be cognizant that it is the selective nature of the sample that happens across all migrating research. That is. persons who chose to migrate would be different from those who do non ( Sodowsky. G. . Kwan. K. . A ; Pannu. R. . 1995 ; as cited in Farver et Al. . 1997 ) . Finally. socialization research by and large focused on immigrants assumed to be for good settled in their new host states. As a consequence. the footings migrants or international migrants referred to the same type of migrators jointly. Furthermore. many states were both directing and having states for different types of migrators. or in the procedure of passage from one type to the other ( Castel. 2002 ) . Therefore. where applicable. it is feasible to plan socialization research surveies sorting different types of migrators. References Adler. L. L. . A ; Gielen. U. P. ( Eds. ) . ( 1994 ) . Cross-cultural subjects in psychological science. Westport: Praeger Publishers. Berry. J. W. ( 1980 ) . Social and cultural alteration. In Triandis. H. C. . A ; Brislin. R. ( Eds. ) . Handbook of cross-cultural psychological science ( pp. 211-279 ) . Boston: Allyn A ; Bacon. Berry. J. W. . Kim. U. . Power. S. . Young. M. A ; Bujaki. M. ( 1989 ) . Acculturation attitudes in plural societies. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 38. 185-206 Berry. ( 1990a ) . Psychology of socialization. In Berman. J. ( Eds. ) . Cross-cultural positions: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation ( pp. 201-234 ) . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Berry. J. W. ( 1997 ) . Immigration. socialization. and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An international reappraisal. 46 ( 1 ) . 5-68. Berry. J. W. . A ; Annis. R. ( 1974 ) . A cculturation emphasis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 5 ( 4 ) . 382-397. Berry. J. W. . Kim. U. . Minde. T. . A ; Mok. D. ( 1987 ) . Comparative surveies of acculturational emphasis. International Migration Review. 21. 591-511. Berry. J. W. . Poortinga. Y. H. . Segall. M. H. . A ; Dasen. P. R. ( 1992 ) . Cross-cultural Psychology: Research and application. New York: Cambridge university Press. Birman. D. ( 1994 ) . Socialization and human diverseness in a multicultural society. In Trickett. E. J. . Watts. R. J. . A ; Birman D. ( Eds. ) . Perspectives on people in context ( pp. 261-284 ) . San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Castele. S. ( 2002 ) . Migration and community formation under conditions of globalisation. The Center for Migration Studies of New York. 36 ( 4 ) . 1143- 1168. Cuellar. I. . Arnold. B. . A ; Maldonado. R. ( 1995 ) . Socialization Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II: a alteration of the original ARSMA graduated table. Latino Journal of Behavioral Science. 17. 275-304. Department of the Interior: 10. 1177/07399863950173001 DelPilar. J. A. . A ; Udasco. J. O. ( 2004 ) . Deculturation: Its deficiency of cogency. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 10. 169-176. Department of the Interior: 10. 1037/1099- 9809. 10. 2. 169 Devos. T. . A ; Banaji. M. R. ( 2005 ) . American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88. 447-466. Department of the Interior: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 88. 3. 447 Farver. J. A. . Narang. S. K. . A ; Bhadha. B. R. ( 2002 ) . East meets west: Cultural individuality. socialization. and struggle in Asiatic Indian households. Journal of Family Psychology. 16 ( 3 ) . 338-350. Department of the Interior: 10. 1037//0893-3200. 16. 3. 338 Jones. A. ( 2008 ) . A soundless but mighty river: the costs of women’s economic migration. Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 33 ( 4 ) . 761-807. Landolt. D. . A ; Da. W. W. ( 2005 ) . The Spatially Ruptured Practices of Migrant Families: A Comparison of Immigrants from El Salvador and the People’s Republic of China. Current Sociology. 53. 625-652. Department of the Interior: 10. 1177/0011392105052719. LaFromboise. . T. . Coleman. . H. . A ; Gerton ( 1993 ) . Psychological impact of biculturism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin. 114 ( 3 ) . 394-412. Liebkind. K. ( 1993 ) . Self-reported cultural individuality. depression and anxiousness among youth Vietnamese refugees and their parents. Journal of Refugee Studies. 6. 25-39. Neblett. E. Shelton. J. N. . A ; Sellers. R. M. ( 2004 ) . The function of racial individuality in pull offing day-to-day racial fusss. In Philogene. G. ( Eds. ) . Race and individuality: The bequest of Kenneth Clark. Washington DC: American Psychological Association Press. Nesdale. . D. . Rooney. . R. . A ; Smith. . L. ( 1997 ) . Migrant cultural individuality and psychological hurt. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 28 ( 5 ) . 569-588. Department of the Interior: 10. 1177/0022022197285004 Phinney. J. S. ( 1990 ) . When we talk about American ethic groups. what do we intend? American Psychologist. 51. 918-917. Phinney. J. S. . A ; Ong. A. D. ( 2007 ) . Conceptualization and measuring of cultural individuality: Current position and future waies. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 54. 271-281. Department of the Interior: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 54. 3. 271 Portes. A. . A ; Rumbaut. R. G. ( 2001 ) . Bequests: The narrative of the immigrant 2nd coevals. Berkerly: University of California Press. Redfield. R. . Linton. R. . A ; Herskovits. M. J. ( 1936 ) memoranda on the survey of socialization. American Anthropologist. 38. 149-152. Ross-Sheriff. F. ( 2011 ) . Global migration and gender. Journal of Women and Social Works. 26 ( 3 ) . 233-238a. Department of the Interior: 10. 1177/0886109911417692 Rudmin. F. W. ( 2003 ) . Critical history of the socialization psychological science of assimilation. separation. integrating. and marginalisation. Review of General Psychology. 7. 3-37. Department of the Interior: 10. 1177/01461670731197 Sam. D. . A ; Berry. J. W. ( 1995 ) . Acculturational emphasis among immature immigrants in Norway. Norse Journal of Psychology. 36. 10-24. Sam. D. . A ; Berry. J. W. ( 2006 ) . The Cambridge enchiridion of socialization psychological science [ Electronic version ] . Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. qut. eblib. com. gold. ezp01. library. qut. edu. au/patron. Schildkraut. D. J. ( 2007 ) . Specifying American individuality in the twenty-first century: How much there is at that place? Journal of Politics. 69. 597-615. Department of the Interior: 10. 1111/j. 1468-2508. 2007. 00562. ten Schwartz. S. J. . Unger. J. B. . Zamboanga. B. L. . A ; Szapocznik. J. ( 2010 ) . Rethinking the construct of socialization: Deductions for the theory and research. 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Community Health Nursing Intervention - Research Paper Example llowing the windshield survey and the statistical analysis because the majority of hospital admission and a higher percentage of the mortality rate in the community link to either of the three. From the data gathered there is a high prevalence of deaths or hospital emergencies are resulting from heart and respiratory diseases issues. For example in the data, the rate of deaths due to heart disease stood at 191.9 per 100,000 people. Comparing to other states this number is very high. It is for this reason that the survey revealed heart disease to be the top cause for the high mortality rate in the community. The analysis also highlights that the major cause for heart disease and respiratory problems in the area is due to air pollution and overcrowding. The next concern in the area is the number of motor vehicle accidents. Most hospital emergencies also attribute to the high rate of motorcar accidents in the region. Based on the priority health issues raised for this community, a cancer screening and awareness program for people of all ages is proposed to aid in early identification and treatment. This program is best suited as it will be able to create awareness and control the menace brought by overcrowding and air pollution. The proposed intervention is specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timed therefore making it meat all the requirements of a SMART program. The program is specific for testing and treating heart disease patient in the community by ensuring at least everybody undergoes testing for signs of heart disease twice a year. The outcome of the proposed intervention will help in reducing the mortality rate of the community and prolong life expectancy of the whole community as a whole. The intervention will be able to educate people on ways of preventing and avoiding situations that may lead to heart disease or complications. This will also provide a means for people who are above the age of 65 who are at most risk access the necessary

Does Thomas Jefferson Deserve to Be Honored in American History Term Paper

Does Thomas Jefferson Deserve to Be Honored in American History - Term Paper Example Jefferson was an influential member of the Continental Congress and was an important founding father. When the American Revolution began Jefferson was already part of the Continental Congress being the representative of Virginia. During the revolution Jefferson assumed the position of wartime Governor of Virginia (1779 to 1781) and was barely able to escape capture at the hands of British troops in 1781. He became the third president of the United States of America in 1801 and continued to 1809 amongst a series of bitter sweet political and military decisions that have received appreciation and criticism alike (Ellis). Jefferson has often been accused of copying other people’s ideas (such as those of Locke) when drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It must be borne in mind that Jefferson himself stated that the document was â€Å"meant as a statement of the prevailing sentiments† amongst Americans at that point in time. To expect Jefferson to monopolize the contents of such an important and integral historical document would be a far greater sin than his admission that the ideas carried in the document were borrowed. In drafting the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was merely trying to reflect on the state of current polity on the American continent and not trying to be a â€Å"creative director† of the American Revolution (Malone). Another of Jefferson’s more important actions was his drafting of the Virginia Statutes for Religious Freedom in 1777 which can be seen as the founding document for the cherished American ideals of liberation and freedom. As a result of this document the Church was separated from the State and it served as a precedent for others to follow. Religious liberation at such an early stage in the nascent American nation’s history helped America to avoid the costly and meaningless religious wars that were still being fought on the European continent. Jefferson was denounced as a â€Å"g odless heathen† by a number of his contemporaries because of this document and its implications but he waded through this mess in order to offer the nation religious liberation. Such actions on the part of Jefferson cannot be downplayed as they represented a large initiative for a society that derived its roots from some nuances of religion. Moreover Jefferson was instrumental in setting up the University of Virginia in 1819 which was aimed at upgrading the existing levels of higher education in the United States. Similarly Jefferson’s purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France near doubled the size of the United States although the entire transaction is mired in controversy (Wilentz). Jefferson was not open to the idea of such a large purchase for largely political reasons but he nonetheless went ahead with the purchase at the insistence of his advisors and his representatives for the negotiation. Preceding Jefferson’s regime the American shipping industry had to pay large endowments to the Barbary pirates in order to guarantee safe passage in the Mediterranean. However during Jefferson’s regime the demands of the Barbary States assumed ludicrous proportions so Jefferson decided to pursue hard military action against the pirates in order to quell the problem. Jefferson’s decision to pursue military action set the tone for future American engagement in global

Walmarts Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Walmarts Ethics - Essay Example Walmart is indeed a large organization with thousands of stores in the US and other parts of the world as well. It has employed millions of employees and hence increasing its fame. However, in a bid to maintain its leading retail position, Walmart has had to engage in unethical buyer power where those suffering are its employees, the suppliers as well as other businesses which Walmart has taken businesses from in a bid to continue with its reputation for lower prices. The employees’ medical benefits among other benefits are not offered to all employees even though they work excess hours without much compensation which is an indication of Walmart’s injustice and unfairness to their hard working employees. When the business continues to lower its prices and reduce the purchasing power of the suppliers in a bid to make more profit, it goes against the ethical principle of beneficence and makes small businesses close and moves the business from Americans. This is an indicat ion therefore that when Walmart uses its buyer power and reduces prices; it only benefits its stockholders but harms the rest of the people. If Walmart is to be ethical in using its buying power to reduce its prices, the profits from the reduced prices in their numerous stores would lead to the stores engaging in non-maleficence and more beneficence. It would also be fairer to the suppliers by compensating them for their efforts as well as exercising justice in the workplace about employee’s benefits and be truthful about it.

Does Thomas Jefferson Deserve to Be Honored in American History Term Paper

Does Thomas Jefferson Deserve to Be Honored in American History - Term Paper Example Jefferson was an influential member of the Continental Congress and was an important founding father. When the American Revolution began Jefferson was already part of the Continental Congress being the representative of Virginia. During the revolution Jefferson assumed the position of wartime Governor of Virginia (1779 to 1781) and was barely able to escape capture at the hands of British troops in 1781. He became the third president of the United States of America in 1801 and continued to 1809 amongst a series of bitter sweet political and military decisions that have received appreciation and criticism alike (Ellis). Jefferson has often been accused of copying other people’s ideas (such as those of Locke) when drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It must be borne in mind that Jefferson himself stated that the document was â€Å"meant as a statement of the prevailing sentiments† amongst Americans at that point in time. To expect Jefferson to monopolize the contents of such an important and integral historical document would be a far greater sin than his admission that the ideas carried in the document were borrowed. In drafting the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was merely trying to reflect on the state of current polity on the American continent and not trying to be a â€Å"creative director† of the American Revolution (Malone). Another of Jefferson’s more important actions was his drafting of the Virginia Statutes for Religious Freedom in 1777 which can be seen as the founding document for the cherished American ideals of liberation and freedom. As a result of this document the Church was separated from the State and it served as a precedent for others to follow. Religious liberation at such an early stage in the nascent American nation’s history helped America to avoid the costly and meaningless religious wars that were still being fought on the European continent. Jefferson was denounced as a â€Å"g odless heathen† by a number of his contemporaries because of this document and its implications but he waded through this mess in order to offer the nation religious liberation. Such actions on the part of Jefferson cannot be downplayed as they represented a large initiative for a society that derived its roots from some nuances of religion. Moreover Jefferson was instrumental in setting up the University of Virginia in 1819 which was aimed at upgrading the existing levels of higher education in the United States. Similarly Jefferson’s purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France near doubled the size of the United States although the entire transaction is mired in controversy (Wilentz). Jefferson was not open to the idea of such a large purchase for largely political reasons but he nonetheless went ahead with the purchase at the insistence of his advisors and his representatives for the negotiation. Preceding Jefferson’s regime the American shipping industry had to pay large endowments to the Barbary pirates in order to guarantee safe passage in the Mediterranean. However during Jefferson’s regime the demands of the Barbary States assumed ludicrous proportions so Jefferson decided to pursue hard military action against the pirates in order to quell the problem. Jefferson’s decision to pursue military action set the tone for future American engagement in global

Knowing Your Audience & Communication Release Assignment

Knowing Your Audience & Communication Release - Assignment Example In the case of the mining accident, it is clear that the families of the victims would be suffering from acute emotional trauma. They want as much information as they can but are afraid of receiving any devastating information. When writing for the families of victims, the journalist should stick to the pertinent details and should provide as much accurate information as he can. Also the writer should not mention any gory details that would further disturb the families at this time. The tone should be emphatic and the language needs to be simple and clear. Another kind of audience in the case of the mining accident is the employees that work in the mine. These employees have to be notified since they have a right to know about the accident and are losing confidence in the organization’s safety measures. In this case, the writer should strive for honesty. The facts should be accurately presented and employees should be aware of the reasons behind the accident. They also have to be reassured that accidents happen in most organization s and often even the best safety measures fail. The tone of the message should be neutral and honest. Since the employees are aware of the technical terms, jargons could be used. Following a cave-in of the San Josà © copper mine located in northern Chile on August 5, 33 workers have been trapped in the mine. The owner of the mine Minera San Esteban along with the government have immediately opened rescue attempts through drilling holes in the mine, located 300 meters underground. On account of the immediate rescue attempts being installed, it has been expected that the trapped workers will be rescued within the shortest period of time. In this moment of pain, the President and the entire community of Chile wishes to extend support and sympathy to the family. It is understandable that the

Learning Organization Essay Example for Free

Learning Organization Essay EXECUTIVE SUMMARY are proliferating as corporations seek to better themselves and gain an edge. Unfortunately, however, failed programs far outnumber successes, and improvement rates remain low. Thats because most companies have failed to grasp a basic truth. Before people and companies can improve, they first must learn. And to do this, they need to look beyond rhetoric and high philosophy and focus on the fundamentals. Three critical issues must be addressed before a company can truly become a learning organization, writes Harvard Business School professor David Garvin. First is the question of meaning: a well-grounded, easy-to-apply definition of a learning organization. Second comes management: clearer operational guidelines for practice. Finally, better tools for measurement can assess an organizations rate and level of learning. Using these three Ms as a framework, Garvin defines learning organizations as skilled at five main activities: systematic problem solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from past experience, learning from the best practices of others, and transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization. And since you cant manage something if you cant measure it, a complete learning audit is a must. That includes measuring cognitive and behavioral changes as well as tangible improvements in results. No learning organization is built overnight. Success comes from carefully cultivated attitudes, commitments, and management processes that accrue slowly and steadily. The first step is to foster an environment conducive to learning. Analog Devices, Chaparral Steel, Xerox, GE, and other companies provide enlightened examples. CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS  CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS are sprouting up all over as organizations strive to better themselves and gain an edge. The topic list is long and varied, and sometimes it seems as though a program a month is needed just to keep up. Unfortunately, failed programs far outnumber successes, and improvement rates remain distressingly low. Why? Because most companies have failed to grasp a basic truth. Continuous improvement requires a commitment to learning. How, after all, can an organization improve without first learning something new? Solving a problem, introducing a product, and reengineering a process all require seeing the world in a new light and acting accordingly. In the absence of learning, companies-and individuals -simply repeat old practices. Change remains cosmetic, and improvements are either fortuitous or short-lived. A few farsighted executives – Ray Stata of Analog Devices, Gordon Forward of Chaparral Steel, Paul Allaire of Xerox-have recognized the link between learning and continuous improvement and have begun to refocus their companies around it. Scholars too have jumped on the bandwagon, beating the drum for learning organizations and knowledge-creating companies. In rapidly changing businesses like semiconductors and consumer electronics, these ideas are fast taking hold. Yet despite the encouraging signs, the topic in large part remains murky, confused, and difficult to penetrate. Meaning, Management, and Measurement Scholars are partly to blame. Their discussions of learning organizations have often been reverential and utopian, filled with near mystical terminology. Paradise, they would have you believe, is just around the corner. Peter Senge, who popularized learning organizations in his book The Fifth Discipline, described them as places where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together. To achieve these ends, Senge suggested the use of five component technologies: systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, and team learning. In a similar spirit, Ikujiro Nonaka characterized knowledge-creating companies as places where inventing new knowledge is not a specialized activity it is a way of behaving, indeed, a way of being, in which everyone is a knowledge worker. Nonaka suggested that companies use metaphors and organizational redundancy to focus thinking, encourage dialogue, and make tacit, instinctively understood ideas explicit. Sound idyllic? Absolutely. Desirable? Without question. But does it provide a framework for action? Hardly. The recommendations are far too abstract, and too many questions remain unanswered. How, for example, will managers know when their companies have become learning organizations? What concrete changes in behavior are required? What policies and programs must be in place? How do you get from here to there? Most discussions of learning organizations finesse these issues. Their focus is high philosophy and grand themes, sweeping metaphors rather than the gritty details of practice. Three critical issues are left unresolved; yet each is essential for effective implementation. First is the question of meaning. We need a plausible, well-grounded definition of learning organizations; it must be actionable and easy to apply. Second is the question of management. We need clearer guidelines for practice, filled with operational advice rather than high aspirations. And third is the question of measurement. We need better tools for assessing an organizations rate and level of learning to ensure that gains have in fact been made. Once these three Ms are addressed, managers will have a firmer foundation for launching learning organizations. Without this groundwork, progress is unlikely, and for the simplest of reasons. For learning to become a meaningful corporate goal, it must first be understood. What Is a Learning Organization? Surprisingly, a clear definition of learning has proved to be elusive over the years. Organizational theorists have studied learning for a long time; the accompanying quotations suggest that there is still considerable disagreement (see Definitions of Organizational Learning on page 77). Most scholars view organizational learning as a process that unfolds over time and link it with knowledge acquisition and improved performance. But they differ on other important matters. Some, for example, believe that behavioral change is required. for learning; others insist that new ways of thinking are enough. Some cite information processing as the mechanism through which learning takes place; others propose-shared insights, organizational routines, even memo. And some think that organizational learning is common, while others believe that flawed, self-serving interpretations are the norm. How can we discern among this cacophony of voices yet build on earlier insights? As a first step, consider the following definition: A learning organization is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to reflect new knowledge and insights. This definition begins with a simple truth: new ideas are essential if learning is to take place. Sometimes they are created de novo, through flashes of insight or creativity; at other times they arrive from outside the organization or are communicated by knowledgeable insiders. Whatever their source, these ideas are the trigger for organizational improvement. But they cannot by themselves create a learning organization. Without accompanying changes in the way that work gets done, only the potential for improvement exists. This is a surprisingly stringent test for it rules out a number of obvious candidates for learning organizations. Many universities fail to qualify, as do many consulting firms. Even General Motors, despite its recent efforts to improve performance, is found wanting. All of these organizations have been effective at creating or acquiring new knowledge but notably less successful in applying that knowledge to their own activities. Total quality management, for example, is now taught at many business schools, yet the number using it to guide their own decision making is very small. Organizational consultants advise clients on social dynamics and small-group behavior but are notorious for their own infighting and factionalism. And GM, with a few exceptions (like Saturn and NUMMI), has had little success in revamping its manufacturing practices, even though its managers are experts on lean manufacturing, JIT production, and the requirements for improved quality of work life. Organizations that do pass the definitional test – Honda, Corning, and General Electric come quickly to mind – have, by contrast, become adept at translating new knowledge into new ways of behaving. These companies actively manage the learning process to ensure that it occurs by design rather than by chance. Distinctive policies and practices are responsible for their success; they form the building blocks of learning organizations. Building Blocks Learning organizations are skilled at five main activities: systematic problem solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from their own experience and past history, learning from the experiences and best practices of others, and transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization. Each is accompanied by a distinctive mind-set, tool kit, and pattern of behavior. Many companies practice these activities to some degree. But few are consistently successful because they rely largely on happenstance and isolated examples. By creating systems and processes that support these activities and integrate them into the fabric of daily operations, companies can manage their learning more effectively. 1. Systematic problem solving. This first activity rests heavily on the philosophy and methods of the quality movement. Its underlying ideas, now widely accepted, include: †¢ Relying on the scientific method, rather than guesswork, for diagnosing problems (what Deming calls the â€Å"Plan, Do, Check, Act cycle, and others refer to as hypothesis-generating, hypothesistesting techniques). †¢ Insisting on data, rather than assumptions, as background for decision making (what quality practitioners call fact-based management). †¢ Using simple statistical tools (histograms, Pareto charts, correlations, cause-and-effect diagrams) to organize data and draw inferences. Most training programs focus primarily on problem solving techniques, using exercises and practical examples. These tools are relatively straightforward and easily communicated; the necessary mind-set, however, is more difficult to establish. Accuracy and precision are essential for learning. Employees must therefore become more disciplined in their thinking and more attentive to details. They must continually ask, How do we know thats true? , recognizing that close enough is not good enough if real learning is to take place. They must push beyond obvious symptoms to assess underlying causes, often collecting evidence when conventional wisdom says it is unnecessary. Otherwise, the organization will remain a prisoner of gut facts and sloppy reasoning, and learning will be stifled. Xerox has mastered this approach on a companywide scale. In 1983, senior managers launched the companys Leadership Through Quality initiative; since then, all employees have been trained in small-group activities and problem-solving techniques. Today a six-step process is used for virtually all decisions (see Xeroxs Problem-Solving Process). Employees are provided with tools in four areas: generating ideas and collecting information (brainstorming, interviewing, surveying); reaching consensus (list reduction, rating forms, weighted voting); analyzing and displaying data (cause-andeffect diagrams, force-field analysis); and planning actions (flow charts, Gantt charts). They then practice these-tools during training sessions that last several days. Training is presented in family groups, members of the same department or business-unit team, and the tools are applied to real problems facing the group. The result of this process has been a common vocabulary and a consistent, companywide approach to problem solving. Once employees have been trained, they are expected to use the techniques at all meetings, and no topic is off limits. When a high-level group was formed to review Xeroxs organizational structure and suggest alternatives, it employed the very same process and tools. 2. Experimentation. This activity involves the systematic searching for and testing of new knowledge. Using the scientific method is essential, and there are obvious parallels to systematic problem solving. But unlike problem solving, experimentation is usually motivated by opportunity and expanding horizons, not by current difficulties. It takes two main forms: ongoing programs and one-ofa-kind demonstration projects. Ongoing programs normally involve a continuing series of small experiments, designed to produce incremental gains in knowledge. They are the mainstay of most continuous improvement programs and are especially common on the shop floor. Corning, for example, experiments continually with diverse raw materials and new formulations to increase yields and provide better grades of glass. Allegheny Ludlum, a specialty steelmaker, regularly examines new rolling methods and improved technologies to raise productivity and reduce costs. Successful ongoing programs share several characteristics. First, they work hard to ensure a steady flow of new ideas, even if they must be imported from outside the organization. Chaparral Steel sends its first-line supervisors on sabbaticals around the globe, where they visit academic and industry leaders, develop an understanding of new Xerox’s Problem-Solving Process Step Questions to be Answered What do we want to change? Expansion/ Divergence Lots of problems for consideration Contraction/ Convergence One problem statement, one â€Å"desired state† agreed upon What’s Next to Go to the Next Step Identification of the gap â€Å"Desired state† described in observable terms Key causes documented and ranked 1. Identify and select problem 2. Analyse Problem What’s preventing us from reaching the â€Å"desired state†? How could we make the change? What’s the best way to do it? Lots of potential causes identified. Key causes identified and verified 3. Generate potential solutions 4. Select and plan the solution Lots of ideas on how to solve the problem Lots of criteria for evaluating potential solutions. Lots of ideas on how to implement and evaluate the selected solution Potential solutions clarified Criteria to use for evaluating solution agreed upon Implementation and evaluation plans agreed upon Implementation of agreed-on contingency plans (if necessary) Effectiveness of solution agreed upon Continuing problems (if any) identified Solution List. Plan for making and monitoring the change Measurement criteria to evaluate solution effectiveness 5. Implement the solution Are we following the plan? Solution in place 6. Evaluate the solution How well did it work? Verification that the problem is solved, or Agreement to address continuing problems work practices and technologies, then bring what theyve learned back to the company and apply it to daily operations. Inlarge part as a result of these initiatives, Chaparral is one of the five lowest cost steel plants in the world. GEs Impact Program originally sent manufacturing managers to Japan to study factory innovations, such as quality circles and kanban cards, and then apply them in their own organizations; today Europe is the destination, and productivity improvement practices the target. The program is one reason GE has recorded productivity gains averaging nearly 5% over the last four years. Successful ongoing programs also require an incentive system that favors risk taking. Employees must feel that the benefits of experimentation exceed the costs; otherwise, they will not participate. This creates a difficult challenge for managers, who are trapped between two perilous extremes. They must maintain accountability and control over experiments without stifling creativity by unduly penalizing employees for failures. Allegheny Ludlum has perfected this juggling act: it keeps expensive, high-impact experiments off the scorecard used to evaluate managers but requires prior approvals from four senior vice presidents. The result has been=a history of productivity improvements annually avenging 7% to 8%. Finally, ongoing programs need managers and employees who are trained in the skills required to perform and evaluate experiments. These skills are seldom intuitive and must usually be learned. They cover a broad sweep: statistical methods, like design of experiments, that efficiently compare a large number of alternatives; graphical techniques, like process analysis, that are essential for redesigning work flows; and creativity techniques, like storyboarding and role playing, that keep novel ideas flowing. The most effective training programs are tightly focused and feature a small set of techniques tailored to employees needs. Training in design of experiments, for example, is useful for manufacturing engineers, while creativity techniques are well suited to development groups. Demonstration projects are usually larger and more complex than ongoing experiments. They involve holistic, system wide changes, introduced at a single site, and are often undertaken with the goal of developing new organizational capabilities. Because these projects represent a sharp break from the past, they are usually designed from scratch, using a clean slate approach. General Foodss Topeka plant, one of the first high commitment work systems in this country, was a pioneering demonstration project initiated to introduce the idea of self-managing teams and high levels of worker autonomy; a more recent example, designed to rethink small-car development, manufacturing, and sales, is GMs Saturn Division. Demonstration projects share a number of distinctive characteristics: †¢ They are usually the first projects to embody principles and approaches that the organization hopes to adopt later on a larger scale. For this reason, they are more transitional efforts than endpoints and involve considerable learning by doing. Mid-course corrections are common. †¢ They implicitly establish policy guidelines and decision rules for later projects. Managers must therefore be sensitive to the precedents they are setting and must send strong signals if they expect to establish new norms. †¢ They often encounter severe tests of commitment from employees who wish to see whether the rules have, in fact, changed. †¢ They are normally developed by strong multifunctional teams reporting directly to senior management. (For projects targeting employee involvement or quality of work life, teams should be multilevel as well. ) †¢ They tend to have only limited impact on the rest of the organization if they are not accompanied by explicit strategies for transferring learning. All of these characteristics appeared in a demonstration project launched by Copeland Corporation, a highly successful compressor manufacturer, in the mid-1970s. Matt Diggs, then the new CEO, wanted to transform the companys approach to manufacturing. Previously, Copeland had machined and assembled all products in a single facility: Costs were high, and quality was marginal. The problem, Diggs felt, was too much complexity. At the outset, Diggs assigned a small, multifunctional team the task of designing a focused factory dedicated to a narrow, newly developed product line. The team reported directly to Diggs and took three years to complete its work. Initially, the project budget was $10 million to $12 million; that figure was repeatedly revised as the team found, through experience and with Diggss prodding, that it could achieve dramatic improvements. The final investment, a total of $30 million, yielded unanticipated breakthroughs in reliability testing, automatic tool adjustment, and programmable control. All were achieved through learning by doing. The team set additional precedents during the plants start-up and early operations. To dramatize the importance of quality, for example, the quality manager was appointed second-in-command, a significant move upward. The same reporting relationship was used at all subsequent plants. In addition, Diggs urged the plant manager to ramp up slowly to full production and resist all efforts to proliferate products. These instructions were unusual at Copeland, where the marketing department normally ruled. Both directives were quickly tested; management held firm, and the implications were felt throughout the organization. Manufacturings stature improved, and the company as a whole recognized its competitive contribution. One observer commented, Marketing had always run the company, so they couldnt believe it. The change was visible at the highest levels, and it went down hard. Once the first focused factory was running smoothly -it seized 25% of the market in two years and held its edge in reliability for over a decade-Copeland built four more factories in quick succession. Diggs assigned members of the initial project to each factorys design team to ensure that early learnings were not lost; these people later rotated into operating assignments. Today focused factories remain the cornerstone of Copelands manufacturing strategy and a continuing source of its cost and quality advantages. Whether they are demonstration projects like Copelands or ongoing programs like Allegheny Ludlums, all forms of experimentation seek the same end: moving from superficial knowledge to deep understanding. At its simplest, the distinction is between knowing how things are done and knowing why they occur. Knowing how is partial knowledge; it is rooted in norms of behavior, standards of practice, and settings of equipment. Knowing why is more fundamental: it captures underlying causeand-effect relationships and accommodates exceptions, adaptations, and unforeseen events. The ability to control temperatures and pressures to align grains of silicon and form silicon steel is an example of knowing how; understanding the chemical and physical process that produces the alignment is knowing why. Further distinctions are possible, as the insert Stages of Knowledge suggests. Operating knowledge can be arrayed in a hierarchy, moving from limited understanding and the ability to make few distinctions to more complete understanding in which all contingencies are anticipated and controlled. In this context, experimentation and problem solving foster learning by pushing organizations up the hierarchy, from lower to higher stages of knowledge. 3. Learning from past experience. Companies must review their successes and failures, assess them systematically, and record the lessons in a form that employers find open and accessible. One expert has called t9is process the Santayana Review, citing the famous philosopher George Santayana, who coined the phrase Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Unfortunately, too many managers today are indifferent, even hostile, to the past, and by failing to reflect on it, they let valuable knowledge escape. A study of more than 150 new products concluded that the knowledge gained from failures [is] often instrumental in achieving subsequent successes. In the simplest terms, failure is the ultimate teacher. IBMs 360 computer series, for example, one of the most popular and profitable ever built, was based on the technology of the failed Stretch computer that preceded it. In this case, as in many others, learning occurred by chance rather than by careful planning. A few companies, however, have established processes that require their managers to periodically think about the past and learn from their mistakes. Boeing did so immediately after its difficulties with the 737 and 747 plane programs. Both planes were introduced with much fanfare and also with serious problems. To ensure that the problems were not repeated, senior managers commissioned a high-level employee group, called Project Homework, to compare the development processes of the 737 and 747 with those of the 707 and 727, two of the companys most profitable planes. The group was asked to develop a set of lessons learned that could be used on future projects. After working for three years, they produced hundreds of recommendations and an inch-thick booklet. Several members of the team were then transferred to the 757 and 767 start-ups, and guided by experience, they produced the most successful, error-free launches in Boeings history. Other companies have used a similar retrospective approach. Like Boeing, Xerox studied its product development process, examining three troubled products in an effort to understand why the companys new business initiatives failed so often. Arthur D. Little, the consulting company, focused on its past successes. Senior management invited ADL consultants from around the world to a two-day jamboree, featuring booths and presentations documenting a wide range of the companys most successful practices, publications, and techniques. British Petroleum went even further and established the post-project appraisal unit to review major investment projects, write up case studies, and derive lessons for planners that were then incorporated into revisions of the companys planning guidelines. A five-person unit reported to the board of directors and reviewed six projects annually. The bulk of the time was spent in the field interviewing managers. This type of review is now conducted regularly at the project level. At the heart of this approach, one expert has observed, is a mind-set that enables companies to recognize the value of productive failure as contrasted with unproductive success. A productive failure is one that leads to insight, understanding, and thus an addition to the commonly held wisdom of the organization. An unproductive success occurs when something goes well, but nobody knows how or why. IBMs legendary founder, Thomas Watson, Sr. , apparently understood the distinction well. Company lore has it that a young manager; after losing $10 million in a risky venture was called into Watsons office. The young man, thoroughly intimidated, began by saying, I guess you want my resignation. Watson replied, You cant be serious. We just spent $10 million educating you. Fortunately, the learning process need not be so expensive. Case studies and post-project reviews like those of Xerox and British Petroleum can be performed with little cost other than managers time. Companies can also enlist the help of faculty and students at local colleges or universities; they bring fresh perspectives and view internships and case studies as opportunities to gain experience and increase their own learning. A few companies have established computerized data banks to speed up the learning process. At Paul Revere Life Insurance, management requires all problem-solving teams to complete short registration forms describing their proposed projects if they hope to qualify for the companys award program. The company then enters the forms into its computer system and can immediately retrieve a listing of other groups of people who have worked or are working on the topic, along with a contact person. Relevant experience is then just a telephone call away. 4. Learning from others. Of course, not all learning comes from reflection and self-analysis. Sometimes the most powerful insights come from looking outside ones immediate environment to gain a new perspective. Enlightened managers know that even companies in completely different businesses can be fertile sources of ideas and catalysts for creative thinking. At these organizations, enthusiastic borrowing is replacing the not invented here syndrome. Milliken calls the process SIS, for Steal Ideas Shamelessly; the broader term for it is benchmarking. According to one expert, benchmarking is an ongoing investigation and learning experience that ensures that best industry practices are uncovered, analyzed, adopted, and implemented. The greatest benefits come from studying practices, the way that work gets done, rather than results, and from involving line managers in the process. Almost anything can be benchmarked. Xerox, the concepts creator, has applied it to billing, warehousing, and automated manufacturing. Milliken has been even more creative: in an inspired moment, it benchmarked Xeroxs approach to benchmarking. Unfortunately, there is still considerable confusion about the requirements for successful benchmarking. Benchmarking is not industrial tourism, a series of ad hoc visits to companies that have received favorable publicity or won quality awards. Rather, it is a disciplined process that begins with a thorough search to identify best-practice organizations, continues with careful study of ones own practices and performance, progresses through systematic site visits and interview and concludes with an analysis of results, development of recommendations, and implementation. While timeconsuming, the process need not be terribly expensive ATTs Benchmarking Group estimates that a moderate-sized project takes four to six months and incurs out-of-pocket costs of $20,000 (when personnel costs ax included, the figure is three to four times higher). Bench marking is one way of gaining an outside perspective; another, equally fertile source of ideas is customers. Conversations with customers invariably stimulate learning; they are, after all, experts in what they do. Customers can provide up-to-date product information, competitive comparisons, insights into changing preferences, and immediate feedback about service and patt ern of use. And companies need these insights at all levels, from the executive suite to the shop floor. At Motorola, members of the Operating and Policy Committee, including the CEO, meet personally and on a regular basis with customers. At Worthington Steel, all machine operators make periodic, unescorted trips to customers factories to discuss their needs. Sometimes customers cant articulate their needs or remember even the most recent problems they have had with a product or service. If thats the case, managers must observe them in action. Xerox employs a number of anthropologists at its Palo Alto Research Center to observe users of new document products in their offices. Digital Equipment has developed an interactive process called contextual inquiry that is used by software engineers to observe users of new technologies as they go about their work. Milliken has created first-delivery teams that accompany the first shipment of all products; team members follow the product through the customers production process to see how it is used and then develop ideas for further improvement. Whatever the source of outside ideas, learning will only occur in a receptive environment. Managers cant be defensive and must be open to criticism or bad news. This is a difficult challenge, but it is essential for success. Companies that approach customers assuming that we must be right, they have to be wrong or visit other organizations certain that they cant  teach us anything seldom learn very much. Learning organizations, by contrast, cultivate the art of open, attentive listening. 5. Transferring knowledge. For learning to be more than a local affair, knowledge must spread quickly and efficiently throughout the organization. Ideas carry maximum impact when they are shared broadly rather than held in a few hands. A variety of mechanisms spur this process, including written, oral, and visual reports, site visits and tours, personnel rotation programs, education and training programs, and standardization programs. Each has distinctive strengths and weaknesses. Reports and tours are by far the most popular mediums. Reports serve many purposes: they summarize findings, provide checklists of dos and donts, and describe important processes and events. They cover a multitude of topics, from benchmarking studies to accounting conventions to newly discovered marketing techniques. Today written reports are often supplemented by videotapes, which offer greater immediacy and fidelity. Tours are an equally popular means of transferring knowledge, especially for large, multidivisional organizations with multiple sites.